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Verkäufer: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (30.482) 99.9%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 364124755145 Black Lives Matter Goldmünze Nah Rosa Parks Abzeichen Tommie Smith Autogrammkarte. Category Portal. Gullah Afro-Seminole CreoleNegro Dutch. List of plantations in the United States. Plantation complexes in the Southern United States. Languages and other dialects. History of slavery. Black Lives Matter George Floyd Coin + Rosa Parks Badge + BLM Card 3 Items in total This consists of three BLM items George Floyd / Black Lives Matter Gold Plated Coin Rosa Parks "Nah" Enamel Pin Badge Card with the Power Salute from the 1968 Olympics which has Tommie Smiths Signature Printed on it The back has an image of the statue of Slave Trade Edward Colston being pulled over by a crowd and the statue of BLM campaigner Jen Reid which replaced it The coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about 1 oz and it comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder. The badge is 30mm and has a pin on the back and a holder The Card is Business card size 90mm x 60mm All are in Excellent Condition Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! A Beautiful coin, card and badge and Magnificent Keepsake Souvenirs to Mark the important events in black history In Excellent Condition Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life AII have a lot of Coins on Ebay so why not > Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My almost 100% Positive Feedback from almost 30,000 Satisfied Customers Most of My Auctions Start at a Penny and I always combine postage so please check out my other items ! I Specialise in Unique Fun Items So For that Interesting Conversational Piece, A Birthday Present, Christmas Gift, A Comical Item to Cheer Someone Up or That Unique Perfect Gift for the Person Who has Everything....You Know Where to Look for a Bargain! ### PLEASE DO NOT CLICK HERE ### Be sure to add me to your favourites sellers list ! If You Have any Questions Please Message me thru ebay and I Will Reply ASAP All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra African-American historyLeft-right from top: 1840 depiction of field hands and child, 1857 newspaper ads for runaway slave rewards, Harriet Tubman, aftermath of 1921 Tulsa race massacre, 1963 March on Washington, civil rights leaders MLK Jr. & Malcolm X, young boy touching President Obama's hair, 2020 George Floyd protests This article is part of a series on the History of the United States Portrait of an African American family- Gainesville, Florida (6909517529).jpg African-American family in Gainesville, Florida c.1900 Timeline and periods Topics By group See also flag United States portal vte Part of a series on African Americans African America History Periods TimelineAtlantic slave tradeSlavery in the colonial history of the United StatesRevolutionary WarAntebellum periodSlavery and military history during the Civil WarReconstruction era PoliticiansCivil rights movement (1865–1896)Jim Crow era (1896–1954)Civil rights movement (1954–1968)Black Power movementPost–civil rights era Aspects Agriculture historyBlack Belt in the American SouthBusiness historyMilitary historyTreatment of the enslaved Migrations Great 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African-American English African-American Vernacular EnglishLiberian EnglishSamaná EnglishTutnese Languages and other dialects Gullah Afro-Seminole CreoleNegro Dutch Population U.S. states AlabamaCaliforniaFloridaGeorgiaKansasLouisianaMarylandMississippiNorth CarolinaOklahomaOregonSouth CarolinaTennesseeTexasUtah U.S. cities Black meccaList of neighborhoodsAtlantaBaltimoreBostonChicagoDallas-Fort WorthDavenportDetroitHoustonJacksonvilleKentuckyLos AngelesNew York CityOmahaPhiladelphiaSan AntonioSan Francisco Historic places District of ColumbiaFloridaGeorgiaMississippiMissouriOmaha, NebraskaNorth CarolinaSouth CarolinaTexasWest Virginia Population count U.S. states and territoriesU.S. metropolitan areasU.S. citiesU.S. communitiesPlaces by plurality of population Diaspora AfricaFranceGhanaIsraelLiberiaNova ScotiaSierra Leone Prejudice Racism Black genocideRace and ethnicity in the United States CensusRacism against Black AmericansReparations for slaverySchool segregation in the United States Stereotypes and media depictions BlackfaceCriminal stereotypesHollywoodMagical NegroMinstrel show flag United States portalCategoryIndex vte African-American history began with the arrival of Africans to North America in the 16th and 17th centuries. Former Spanish slaves who had been freed by Francis Drake arrived aboard the Golden Hind at New Albion in California in 1579.[1] The European colonization of the Americas, and the resulting transatlantic slave trade, led to a large-scale transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic; of the roughly 10–12 million Africans who were sold by the Barbary slave trade, either to European slavery or to servitude in the Americas, approximately 388,000 landed in North America.[2][3] After arriving in various European colonies in North America, the enslaved Africans were sold to white colonists, primarily to work on cash crop plantations. A group of enslaved Africans arrived in the English colony of Virginia in 1619, marking the beginning of slavery in the colonial history of the United States; by 1776, roughly 20% of the British North American population was of African descent, both free and enslaved.[4][5] The American Revolutionary War, which saw the Thirteen Colonies become independent and transform into the United States, led to great social upheavals for African Americans; Black soldiers fought on both the British and the American sides, and after the conflict ended the Northern United States gradually abolished slavery.[6][7] However, the American South, which had an economy dependent on plantations operation by slave labor, entrenched the slave system and expanded it during the westward expansion of the United States.[8][9] During this period, numerous enslaved African Americans escaped into free states and Canada via the Underground Railroad.[10] Disputes over slavery between the Northern and Southern states led to the American Civil War, in which 178,000 African Americans served on the Union side. During the war, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in the U.S.[11] After the war ended with a Confederate defeat, the Reconstruction era began, in which African Americans living in the South were granted equal rights with their white neighbors. However, white opposition to these advancements led to most African Americans living in the South to be disfranchised, and a system of racial segregation known as the Jim Crow laws was passed in the Southern states.[12] Beginning in the early 20th century, in response to poor economic conditions, segregation and lynchings, over 6 million primarily rural African Americans migrated out of the South to other regions of the United States in search of opportunity.[13] The nadir of American race relations led to civil rights efforts to overturn discrimination and racism against African Americans.[14] In 1954, these efforts coalesced into a broad unified movement led by civil rights activists such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. This succeeded in persuading the federal government to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed racial discrimination.[15] The 2020 United States census reported that 46,936,733 respondents identified as African Americans, forming roughly 14.2% of the American population.[16] Of those, over 2.1 million immigrated to the United States as citizens of modern African states.[17] African Americans have made major contributions to the culture of the United States, including literature, cinema and music.[18] Enslavement Main article: Slavery in the colonial history of the United States African origins The majority of African Americans are the descendants of Africans who were forced into slavery after being captured during African wars or raids. They were purchased and brought to America as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[19] African Americans are descended from various ethnic groups, mostly from ethnic groups that lived in Western and Central Africa, including the Sahel. A smaller number of African Americans are descended from ethnic groups that lived in Eastern and Southeastern Africa. The major ethnic groups that the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua, among many others. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, what they had in common was a way of life which was different from that of the Europeans.[20] Originally, a majority of the future slaves came from these villages and societies, however, once they were sent to the Americas and enslaved, these different peoples had European standards and beliefs forced upon them, causing them to do away with tribal differences and forge a new history and culture that was a creolization of their common past, present, and European culture .[21] Slaves who belonged to specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and became more dominant in numbers than slaves who belonged to other African ethnic groups in certain regions of what later became the United States. Regions of Africa Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade. These regions were: Senegambia, encompassing the coast from the Senegal River to the Casamance River, where captives as far away as the Upper and Middle Niger River Valley were sold; The Sierra Leone region included territory from the Casamance to the Assinie in the modern countries of Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire; The Gold Coast region consisted of mainly modern Ghana; The Bight of Benin region stretched from the Volta River to the Benue River in modern Togo, Benin and southwestern Nigeria; The Bight of Biafra extended from southeastern Nigeria through Cameroon into Gabon; West Central Africa, the largest region, included the Congo and Angola; and East and Southeast Africa, the region of Mozambique-Madagascar included the modern countries of Mozambique, parts of Tanzania and Madagascar.[22] The largest source of slaves transported across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled iron workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many unique tribes with their own customs and religions, by the 10th century many of the tribes had embraced Islam. Those villages in West Africa which were lucky enough to be in good conditions for growth and success, prospered. They also contributed their success to the slave trade.[20] In all, about 10–12 million Africans were transported to the Western Hemisphere. The vast majority of these people came from that stretch of the West African coast extending from present-day Senegal to Angola; a small percentage came from Madagascar and East Africa. Only 5% (about 500,000) went to the American colonies. The vast majority went to the West Indies and Brazil, where they died quickly. Demographic conditions were highly favorable in the American colonies, with less disease, more food, some medical care, and lighter work loads than prevailed in the sugar fields.[5] Origins and percentages of African Americans imported to the Thirteen Colonies, French and Spanish Louisiana (1700–1820):[23] Region Percentage West Central Africa 26.1% Bight of Biafra 24.4% Sierra Leone 15.8% Senegambia 14.5% Gold Coast 13.1% Bight of Benin 4.3% Mozambique-Madagascar 1.8% Total 100.0% The Middle Passage Main article: Middle Passage Before the Atlantic slave trade there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, who were often prisoners of war, with the Europeans. The people of Mali and Benin are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves.[20] Transport In the account of Olaudah Equiano, he described the process of being transported to the colonies and being on the slave ships as a horrific experience. On the ships, the enslaved Africans were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships.[24] Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender.[24] Under the deck, the enslaved Africans were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Enslaved males were generally kept in the ship's hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding.[24] The captives stationed on the floor beneath low-lying bunks could barely move and spent much of the voyage pinned to the floorboards, which could, over time, wear the skin on their elbows down to the bone.[24] Due to the lack of basic hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly and death was common. The women on the ships often endured rape by the crewmen.[20] Women and children were often kept in rooms set apart from the main hold. This gave crewmen easy access to the women which was often regarded as one of the perks of the trade system.[24] Not only did these rooms give the crewmen easy access to women but it gave enslaved women better access to information on the ship's crew, fortifications, and daily routine, but little opportunity to communicate this to the men confined in the ship's hold.[24] As an example, women instigated a 1797 insurrection aboard the slave ship Thomas by stealing weapons and passing them to the men below as well as engaging in hand-to-hand combat with the ship's crew.[24] In the midst of these terrible conditions, enslaved Africans plotted mutiny. Enslaved males were the most likely candidates to mutiny and only at times they were on deck.[24] While rebellions did not happen often, they were usually unsuccessful. In order for the crew members to keep the enslaved Africans under control and prevent future rebellions, the crews were often twice as large and members would instill fear into the enslaved Africans through brutality and harsh punishments.[24] From the time of being captured in Africa to the arrival to the plantations of the European masters, took an average of six months.[20] Africans were completely cut off from their families, home, and community life.[25] They were forced to adjust to a new way of life. Colonial era This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "African-American history" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) "Landing Negroes at Jamestown from Dutch man-of-war, 1619", 1901. "Slaves working in 17th-century Virginia", by an unknown artist, 1670. Africans assisted the Spanish and the Portuguese during their early exploration of the Americas. In the 16th century some Black explorers settled in the Mississippi valley and in the areas that became South Carolina and New Mexico. The most celebrated Black explorer of the Americas was Estéban, who traveled through the Southwest in the 1530s.[26] In 1619, the first captive Africans were brought via Dutch slave ship to Point Comfort (today Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia), thirty miles downstream from Jamestown, Virginia.[27] They had been kidnapped by Portuguese slave traders.[28] Virginia settlers treated these captives as indentured servants and released them after a number of years.[citation needed] This practice was gradually replaced by the system of chattel slavery used in the Caribbean.[29] When servants were freed, they became competition for resources. Additionally, released servants had to be replaced.[30] This—combined with the ambiguous nature of the social status of Black people and the difficulty in using any other group of people as forced servants[citation needed]—led to the subjugation of Black people into slavery. Massachusetts was the first colony to legalize slavery in 1641.[31] Other colonies followed suit by passing laws that made slave status heritable and non-Christian imported servants slaves for life.[30] At first, Africans in the South were outnumbered by white indentured servants who came voluntarily from Europe. They[who?] avoided the plantations. With the vast amount of arable land and a shortage of laborers, plantation owners turned to African slavery. The enslaved had some legal rights—it was a crime to kill an enslaved person, for example, and several whites were hanged for it.[citation needed] Generally, enslaved Africans developed their own family system, religion, and customs in the slave quarters with little interference from owners, who were only interested in work outputs.[citation needed] Before the 1660s, the North American mainland colonies were still fairly small in size and did not have a great demand for labour, so colonists did not import large numbers of enslaved Africans at this point.[citation needed] American Independence The colonists eventually won the war and the United States was recognized as a sovereign nation. In the provisional treaty, they demanded the return of property, including enslaved people. Nonetheless, the British helped up to 3,000 documented African Americans to leave the country for Nova Scotia, Jamaica and Britain rather than be returned to slavery.[54] The Constitutional Convention of 1787 sought to define the foundation for the government of the newly formed United States of America. The constitution set forth the ideals of freedom and equality while providing for the continuation of the institution of slavery through the fugitive slave clause and the three-fifths compromise. Additionally, free Black people's rights were also restricted in many places. Most were denied the right to vote and were excluded from public schools. Some Black people sought to fight these contradictions in court. In 1780, Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker used language from the new Massachusetts constitution that declared all men were born free and equal in freedom suits to gain release from slavery. A free Black businessman in Boston named Paul Cuffe sought to be excused from paying taxes since he had no voting rights.[55] In the Northern states, the revolutionary spirit did help African Americans. Beginning in the 1750s, there was widespread sentiment during the American Revolution that slavery was a social evil (for the country as a whole and for the whites) that should eventually be abolished.[citation needed] All the Northern states passed emancipation acts between 1780 and 1804; most of these arranged for gradual emancipation and a special status for freedmen, so there were still a dozen "permanent apprentices" into the 19th century. In 1787 Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance and barred slavery from the large Northwest Territory.[56] In 1790, there were more than 59,000 free Black people in the United States. By 1810, that number had risen to 186,446. Most of these were in the North, but Revolutionary sentiments also motivated Southern slaveholders. For 20 years after the Revolution, more Southerners also freed enslaved people, sometimes by manumission or in wills to be accomplished after the slaveholder's death. In the Upper South, the percentage of free Black people rose from about 1% before the Revolution to more than 10% by 1810. Quakers and Moravians worked to persuade slaveholders to free families. In Virginia, the number of free Black people increased from 10,000 in 1790 to nearly 30,000 in 1810, but 95% of Black people were still enslaved. In Delaware, three-quarters of all Black people were free by 1810.[57] By 1860, just over 91% of Delaware's Black people were free, and 49.1% of those in Maryland.[58] Among the successful free men was Benjamin Banneker, a Maryland astronomer, mathematician, almanac author, surveyor, and farmer, who in 1791 assisted in the initial survey of the boundaries of the future District of Columbia.[59] Despite the challenges of living in the new country, most free Black people fared far better than the nearly 800,000 enslaved Blacks. Even so, many considered emigrating to Africa.[55] Religion Main articles: Religion in Black America and Black church By 1800 a small number of slaves had joined Christian churches. Free Black people in the North set up their own networks of churches and in the South the slaves sat in the upper galleries of white churches. Central to the growth of community among Blacks was the Black church, usually the first communal institution to be established. The Black church was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to discrimination. The churches also served as neighborhood centers where free Black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion from white detractors. The church also served as the center of education. Since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education; it educated the freed and enslaved Black people. Seeking autonomy, some Black people like Richard Allen (bishop) founded separate Black denominations.[60] The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) has been called the "central and defining event in the development of Afro-Christianity."[61][62] Abolitionism Abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 1840–1860 period developed large, complex campaigns against slavery. According to Patrick C. Kennicott, the largest and most effective abolitionist speakers were Black people who spoke before the countless local meetings of the National Negro Conventions. They used the traditional arguments against slavery, protesting it on moral, economic, and political grounds. Their role in the antislavery movement not only aided the abolitionist cause but also was a source of pride to the Black community.[70] In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published a novel that changed how many would view slavery. Uncle Tom's Cabin tells the story of the life of an enslaved person and the brutality that is faced by that life day after day. It would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year. The popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin would solidify the North in its opposition to slavery, and press forward the abolitionist movement. President Lincoln would later invite Stowe to the White House in honor of this book that changed America. In 1856 Charles Sumner, a Massachusetts congressmen and antislavery leader, was assaulted and nearly killed on the House floor by Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Sumner had been delivering an abolitionist speech to Congress when Brooks attacked him. Brooks received praise in the South for his actions while Sumner became a political icon in the North. Sumner later returned to the Senate, where he was a leader of the Radical Republicans in ending slavery and legislating equal rights for freed slaves.[71] Over 1 million enslaved people were moved from the older seaboard slave states, with their declining economies, to the rich cotton states of the southwest; many others were sold and moved locally.[72] Ira Berlin (2000) argues that this Second Middle Passage shredded the planters' paternalist pretenses in the eyes of Black people and prodded enslaved people and free Black people to create a host of oppositional ideologies and institutions that better accounted for the realities of endless deportations, expulsions, and flights that continually remade their world.[73] Benjamin Quarles' work Black Abolitionists provides the most extensive account of the role of Black abolitionists in the American anti-slavery movement.[74] The Black community [75] Black people generally settled in cities, creating the core of Black community life in the region. They established churches and fraternal orders. Many of these early efforts were weak and they often failed, but they represented the initial steps in the evolution of Black communities.[76] During the early Antebellum period, the creation of free Black communities began to expand, laying out a foundation for African Americans' future. At first, only a few thousand African Americans had their freedom. As the years went by, the number of Blacks being freed expanded tremendously, building to 233,000 by the 1820s. They sometimes sued to gain their freedom or purchased it. Some slave owners freed their bondspeople and a few state legislatures abolished slavery.[77] American Civil War and Emancipation Main articles: American Civil War and Emancipation Proclamation See also: Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million enslaved people in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." Its practical effect was that as soon as an enslaved person escaped from slavery, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the enslaved person became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their enslaved people as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all the designated enslaved people.[95] About 200,000 free Black people and former enslaved people served in the Union Army and Navy, thus providing a basis for a claim to full citizenship.[96] The dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the Black population, with much sickness and death.[97] Reconstruction Main articles: Reconstruction era and African American officeholders during and following the Reconstruction era See also: Freedmen's Bureau The Emancipation Proclamation. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 made Black people full U.S. citizens (and this repealed the Dred Scott decision). In 1868, the 14th Amendment granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans. The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, extended the right to vote to Black males. The Freedmen's Bureau was an important institution established to create social and economic order in Southern states.[20] After the Union victory over the Confederacy, a brief period of Southern Black progress, called Reconstruction, followed. During Reconstruction the states that had seceded were readmitted into the Union.[98] From 1865 to 1877, under protection of Union troops, some strides were made toward equal rights for African Americans. Southern Black men began to vote and were elected to the United States Congress and to local offices such as sheriff. The safety provided by the troops did not last long, however, and white Southerners frequently terrorized Black voters. Coalitions of white and Black Republicans passed bills to establish the first public school systems in most states of the South, although sufficient funding was hard to find. Black people established their own churches, towns, and businesses. Tens of thousands migrated to Mississippi for the chance to clear and own their own land, as 90 percent of the bottomlands were undeveloped. By the end of the 19th century, two-thirds of the farmers who owned land in the Mississippi Delta bottomlands were Black.[99] Racial terrorism In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan, a secret white supremacist criminal organization dedicated to destroying the Republican Party in the South, especially by terrorizing Black leaders, was formed. Klansmen hid behind masks and robes to hide their identity while they carried out violence and property damage. The Klan used terrorism, especially murder and threats of murder, arson and intimidation. The Klan's excesses led to the passage of legislation against it, and with Federal enforcement, it was destroyed by 1871.[111] The anti-Republican and anti-freedmen sentiment only briefly went underground, as violence arose in other incidents, especially after Louisiana's disputed state election in 1872, which contributed to the Colfax and Coushatta massacres in Louisiana in 1873 and 1874. Tensions and rumors were high in many parts of the South. When violence erupted, African Americans consistently were killed at a much higher rate than were European Americans. Historians of the 20th century have renamed events long called "riots" in southern history. The common stories featured whites heroically saving the community from marauding Black people. Upon examination of the evidence, historians have called numerous such events "massacres", as at Colfax, because of the disproportionate number of fatalities for Black people as opposed to whites. The mob violence there resulted in 40–50 Black people dead for each of the three whites killed.[112] While not as widely known as the Klan, the paramilitary organizations that arose in the South during the mid-1870s as the white Democrats mounted a stronger insurgency, were more directed and effective than the Klan in challenging Republican governments, suppressing the Black vote and achieving political goals. Unlike the Klan, paramilitary members operated openly, often solicited newspaper coverage, and had distinct political goals: to turn Republicans out of office and suppress or dissuade Black voting in order to regain power in 1876. Groups included the White League, that started from white militias in Grant Parish, Louisiana, in 1874 and spread in the Deep South; the Red Shirts, that started in Mississippi in 1875 but had chapters arise and was prominent in the 1876 election campaign in South Carolina, as well as in North Carolina; and other White Line organizations such as rifle clubs.[113] Robert McDaniels lynched. Apr. 13, 1937 The Jim Crow era accompanied the most cruel wave of "racial" suppression that America has yet experienced. Between 1890 and 1940, millions of African Americans were disenfranchised, killed, and brutalized. According to newspaper records kept at the Tuskegee Institute, about 5,000 men, women, and children were murdered in documented extrajudicial mob violence—called "lynchings." The journalist Ida B. Wells estimated that lynchings not reported by the newspapers, plus similar executions under the veneer of "due process", may have amounted to about 20,000 killings.[114] Of the tens of thousands of lynchers and onlookers during this period, it is reported that fewer than 50 whites were ever indicted for their crimes, and only four were sentenced. Because Black people were disenfranchised, they could not sit on juries or have any part in the political process, including local offices. Meanwhile, the lynchings were used as a weapon of terror to keep millions of African-Americans living in a constant state of anxiety and fear.[115] Most Black people were denied their right to keep and bear arms under Jim Crow laws, and they were therefore unable to protect themselves or their families.[116] Early civil rights movement Main article: Civil rights movement (1896–1954) In response to these and other setbacks, in the summer of 1905, W. E. B. Du Bois and 28 other prominent, African-American men met secretly at Niagara Falls, Ontario. There, they produced a manifesto calling for an end to racial discrimination, full civil liberties for African Americans and recognition of human brotherhood. The organization they established came to be called the Niagara Movement. After the notorious Springfield, Illinois race riot of 1908, a group of concerned Whites joined with the leadership of the Niagara Movement and formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) a year later, in 1909. Under the leadership of Du Bois, the NAACP mounted legal challenges to segregation and lobbied legislatures on behalf of Black Americans. While the NAACP use the court system to promote equality, at the local level African Americans adopted a self-help strategy. They pooled their resources to create independent community and institutional lives for themselves. They established schools, churches, social welfare institutions, banks, African-American newspapers and small businesses to serve the needs of their communities.[117] The main organizer of national and local self-help organizations was Alabama educator Booker T. Washington.[118] World War I See also: Military history of African Americans § World War I African American soldiers of the US Army marching northwest of Verdun, France 5 November 1918 Soldiers of the 369th (15th N.Y.) who won the Croix de Guerre for gallantry in action, 1919 Further information: Woodrow Wilson and race Soldiers The U.S. armed forces remained segregated during World War I. Still, many African Americans eagerly volunteered to join the Allied cause following America's entry into the war. More than two million African American men rushed to register for the draft. By the time of the armistice with Germany in November 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front.[1][131][132][133] Most African American units were relegated to support roles and did not see combat. Still, African Americans played a significant role in America's war effort. Four African American regiments were integrated into French units because the French suffered heavy losses and badly needed men after three years of a terrible war. One of the most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters", which was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other American unit in the war. 171 members of the 369th were awarded the Legion of Merit.[citation needed] From May 1918 to November 1918, the 371st and 372nd African American Regiments were integrated under the 157th Red Hand Division[134] commanded by the French General Mariano Goybet. They earned glory in the decisive final offensive in Champagne region of France. The two Regiments were decorated by the French Croix de Guerre for their gallantry in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive.[citation needed] 157th I.D. Red Hand flag[134] drawn by General Mariano Goybet Corporal Freddie Stowers of the 371st Infantry Regiment was posthumously awarded a Medal of Honor—the only African American to be so honored for actions in World War I. During action in France, Stowers had led an assault on German trenches, continuing to lead and encourage his men even after being wounded twice. Stowers died from his wounds, but his men continued the fight on a German machine gun nest near Bussy farm in Champagne, and eventually defeated the German troops.[citation needed] Stowers was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but according to the Army, the nomination was misplaced. Many believed the recommendation had been intentionally ignored due to institutional racism in the Armed Forces. In 1990, under pressure from Congress, the Defense Department launched an investigation. Based on findings from this investigation, the Army Decorations Board approved the award of the Medal of Honor to Stowers. On April 24, 1991–73 years after he was killed in action—Stowers' two surviving sisters received the Medal of Honor from President George H. W. Bush at the White House.[citation needed] Home front and postwar Further information: United States home front during World War I and Great Migration (African American) With an enormous demand for expansion of the defense industries, the new draft law in effect, and the cut off of immigration from Europe, demand was very high for underemployed farmers from the South. Hundreds of thousands of African-Americans took the trains to Northern industrial centers in a dramatic historical event known as the Great Migration. Migrants going to Pittsburgh and surrounding mill towns in western Pennsylvania between 1890 and 1930 faced racial discrimination and limited economic opportunities. The Black population in Pittsburgh jumped from 6,000 in 1880 to 27,000 in 1910. Many took highly paid, skilled jobs in the steel mills. Pittsburgh's Black population increased to 37,700 in 1920 (6.4% of the total) while the Black element in Homestead, Rankin, Braddock, and others nearly doubled. They succeeded in building effective community responses that enabled the survival of new communities.[135][136] Historian Joe Trotter explains the decision process: Although African-Americans often expressed their views of the Great Migration in biblical terms and received encouragement from northern black newspapers, railroad companies, and industrial labor agents, they also drew upon family and friendship networks to help in the move to Western Pennsylvania. They formed migration clubs, pooled their money, bought tickets at reduced rates, and often moved ingroups. Before they made the decision to move, they gathered information and debated the pros and cons of the process....In barbershops, poolrooms, and grocery stores, in churches, lodge halls, and clubhouses, and in private homes, southern blacks discussed, debated, and decided what was good and what was bad about moving to the urban North.[137] After the war ended and the soldiers returned home, tensions were very high, with serious labor union strikes and inter-racial riots in major cities. The summer of 1919 was known as the Red Summer with outbreaks of racial violence killing about 1,000 people across the nation, most of whom were Black.[138][139] Nevertheless, the newly established Black communities in the North nearly all endured. Joe Trotter explains how the Blacks built new institutions for their new communities in the Pittsburgh area: Black churches, fraternal orders, and newspapers (especially the Pittsburgh Courier); organizations such as the NAACP, Urban League, and Garvey Movement; social clubs, restaurants, and baseball teams; hotels, beauty shops, barber shops, and taverns, all proliferated.[140] New Deal WPA poster promoting the benefits of employment Main article: New Deal § African Americans The Great Depression hit Black America hard. In 1930, it was reported that 4 out of 5 Black people lived in the South, the average life expectancy for Black people was 15 years less than whites, and the Black infant mortality rate at 12% was double that of whites.[141] In Chicago, Black people made up 4% of the population and 16% of the unemployed while in Pittsburgh blacks were 8% of the population and 40% of the unemployed.[142] In January 1934, the journalist Lorena Hickok reported from rural Georgia that she had seen "half-starved Whites and Blacks struggle in competition for less to eat than my dog gets at home, for the privilege of living in huts that are infinitely less comfortable than his kennel".[143] She also described most Southern Black people who made worked as sharecroppers as living under a system very close to slavery.[143] A visiting British journalist wrote she "had traveled over most of Europe and part of Africa, but I have never seen such terrible sights as I saw yesterday among the sharecroppers of Arkansas".[144] The New Deal did not have a specific program for Black people only, but it sought to incorporate them in all the relief programs that it began.[145][146] The most important relief agencies were the CCC for young men (who worked in segregated units), the FERA relief programs in 1933–35 (run by local towns and cities), and especially the WPA, which employed 2,000,000 or more workers nationwide under federal control, 1935–42. All races had had the same wage rates and working conditions in the WPA.[147] A rival federal agency was the Public Works Administration (PWA), headed by long-time civil rights activist Harold Ickes. It set quotas for private firms hiring skilled and unskilled Black people in construction projects financed through the PWA, overcoming the objections of labor unions. In this way, the New Deal ensured that blacks were 13% of the unskilled PWA jobs in Chicago, 60% in Philadelphia and 71% in Jacksonville, Florida; their share of the skilled jobs was 4%, 6%, and 17%, respectively.[148] In the Department of Agriculture, there was a lengthy bureaucratic struggle in 1933–35 between one faction which favored rising prices for farmers vs. another faction which favored reforms to assist sharecroppers, especially Black ones. When one Agriculture Department official, Alger Hiss, in early 1935 wrote up a directive to ensure that Southern landlords were paying sharecroppers for their labor (which most of them did not), Senator Ellison D. Smith stormed into his office and shouted: "Young fella, you can't do this to my niggers, paying checks to them".[149] The Agriculture Secretary, Henry A. Wallace, sided with Smith and agreed to cancel the directive.[150] As it turned out, the most effective way for Black sharecroppers to escape a life of poverty in the South was to move to the North or California. An immediate response was a shift in the Black vote in Northern cities from the GOP to the Democrats (blacks seldom voted in the South.)[151] In Southern states where few Black people voted, Black leaders seized the opportunity to work inside the new federal agencies as social workers and administrators, with an eye to preparing a new generation who would become leaders of grass-roots constituencies that could be mobilized at some future date for civil rights.[152] President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed the first federal black judge, William H. Hastie, and created an unofficial "black cabinet" led by Mary McLeod Bethune to advise him.[153] Roosevelt ordered that federal agencies such as the CCC, WPA and PWA were not to discriminate against Black Americans.[153] The president's wife, Eleanor Roosevelt (who was a close friend of Bethune's), was notably sympathetic towards African-Americans and constantly in private urged her husband to do more to try help Black Americans.[153] The fact that the Civil Works Administration paid the same wages to Black workers as white workers sparked much resentment in the South and as early as 1933 conservative Southern politicians who claiming that federal relief payments were causing Black people to move to the cities to become a "permanent welfare class".[154] Studies showed that Black people were twice likely to be unemployed as whites, and one-fifth of all people receiving federal relief payments were Black, which was double their share of the population.[155] In Chicago the Black community had been a stronghold of the Republican machine, but in the Great Depression the machine fell apart. Voters and leaders moved en masse into the Democratic Party as the New Deal offered relief programs and the city Democratic machine offered suitable positions in the Democratic Party for leaders such as William Dawson, who went to Congress.[156] Militants demanded a federal anti-lynching bill, but President Roosevelt knew it would never pass Congress but would split his New Deal coalition.[157] Because conservative white Southerners tended to vote as a bloc for the Democratic Party with all of the Senators and Congressmen from the South in the 1930s being Democrats, this tended to pull the national Democratic Party to the right on many issues while Southern politicians formed a powerful bloc in Congress.[158] When a Black minister, Marshall L. Shepard, delivered the opening prayer at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia in 1936, Senator Ellison D. Smith stormed out, screaming: "This mongrel meeting ain't no place for a white man!"[158] Though Smith's reaction was extreme, other Democratic politicians from the South made it clear to Roosevelt that they were very displeased. In the 1936 election, African-Americans who could vote overwhelmingly did so for Roosevelt, marking the first time that a Democratic candidate for president had won the Black vote.[159] In November 1936, the American duo Buck and Bubbles became the first Black people to appear on television, albeit on a British television channel.[160] In April 1937, Congressman Earl C. Michener read out on the floor of the House of Representatives an account of the lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels in Duck Hill, Mississippi on 13 April 1937, describing in much detail how a white mob tied two Black men to a tree, tortured them with blowtorches, and finally killed them.[161] Michener introduced an anti-lynching bill that passed the House, but which was stopped in the Senate as Southern senators filibustered the bill until it was withdrawn on 21 February 1938.[162] Both civil rights leaders and the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, pressed President Roosevelt to support the anti-lynching bill, but his support was half-hearted at best.[163] Roosevelt told Walter Francis White of the NAACP that he personally supported the anti-lynching bill, but that: "I did not choose the tools with which I must work. Had I been permitted to choose them I would have selected quite different ones. But I've got to get legislation passed to save America. The Southerners by reason of the seniority rule in Congress are chairmen or occupy strategic places on most of the Senate and House committees. If I came out for the antilynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take the risk".[163] Through Roosevelt was sympathetic, and his wife even more so towards the plight of African-Americans, but the power of the Southern Democratic bloc in Congress, whom he did not wish to take on, limited his options.[163] Through not explicitly designed to assist Black Americans, Roosevelt supported the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which imposed a national minimum wage of 40 cents per hour and a forty-hour work week while banning child labor, which was intended to assist poorer Americans.[164] The Southern congressional bloc were vehemently opposed to the Fair Labor Standards Act, which they saw as an attack on the entire Southern way of life, which was based upon extremely low wages (for example the minimum wage was 50 cents per day in South Carolina), and caused some of them to break with Roosevelt.[165] In 1938, Roosevelt campaigned in the Democratic primaries to defeat three conservative Southern Democratic senators, Walter F. George, Millard Tydings and Ellison "Cotton Ed" Smith, whom were all returned.[166] Later in 1938, the conservative Southern Democrats allied themselves with conservative Republicans, forming an alliance in Congress which sharply limited Roosevelt's ability to pass liberal legislation.[167] After Congress passed the Selective Service Act in September 1940 establishing the draft, A. Philip Randolph, the president of all black Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters union had his union issue a resolution calling for the government to desegregate the military.[168] As the First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt had attended the meeting of the brotherhood that passed the resolution, it was widely believed that the president was supportive.[168] Randolph subsequently visited the White House on 27 September 1940, where President Roosevelt seemed to be equally sympathetic.[169] Randolph felt very betrayed where he learned the military was to remain segregated after all despite the president's warm words.[170] Roosevelt had begun a program of rearmament, and feeling the president was not to be trusted, Randolph formed the March on Washington Movement, announcing plans for a huge civil rights march in Washington DC that would demand desegregation of the military and the factories in the defense industry on 1 July 1941.[170] In June 1941 as the deadline for the march approached, Roosevelt asked for it to be cancelled, saying that 100, 000 Black people demonstrating in Washington would create problems for him.[170] On 18 June 1941, Randolph met with Roosevelt with the mayor of New York, Fiorello H. La Guardia serving as a mediator, where in a compromise it was agreed that the march would be cancelled in exchange for Executive Order 8802, which banned discrimination in factories making weapons for the military.[171] In 1941, the Roosevelt administration, through officially neutral, was leaning in very Allied direction with the United States providing weapons to Great Britain and China (to be joined by the Soviet Union after 22 June 1941), and the president needed the co-operation of Congress as much possible, where isolationist voices were frequently heard. Roosevelt argued to Randolph that he could not antagonize the powerful bloc of conservative Southern Democrats in Congress, and desegregation of the military was out of the question as the Southern Democrats would never accept it; by contrast, as La Guardia pointed out, most of the factories in the defense industry were located in California, the Midwest and the Northeast.[171] Cotton The largest group of Black people worked in the cotton farms of the Deep South as sharecroppers or tenant farmers; a few owned their farms. Large numbers of whites also were tenant farmers and sharecroppers. Tenant farming characterized the cotton and tobacco production in the post-Civil War South. As the agricultural economy plummeted in the early 1930s, all farmers in all parts of the nation were badly hurt. Worst hurt were the tenant farmers (who had relatively more control) and sharecroppers (who had less control), as well as daily laborers (mostly Black, with least control).[172] The problem was very low prices for farm products and the New Deal solution was to raise them by cutting production. It accomplished this in the South by the AAA, which gave landowners acreage reduction contracts, by which they were paid to not grow cotton or tobacco on a portion of their land. By law, they were required to pay the tenant farmers and sharecroppers on their land a portion of the money, but some cheated on this provision, hurting their tenants and croppers. The farm wage workers who worked directly for the landowner were mostly the ones who lost their jobs. For most tenants and sharecroppers the AAA was a major help. Researchers at the time concluded, "To the extent that the AAA control-program has been responsible for the increased price [of cotton], we conclude that it has increased the amount of goods and services consumed by the cotton tenants and croppers." Furthermore, the landowners typically let their tenants and croppers use the land taken out of production for their own personal use in growing food and feed crops, which further increased their standard of living. Another consequence was that the historic high levels of turnover from year to year declined sharply, as tenants and coppers tend to stay with the same landowner. Researchers concluded, "As a rule, planters seem to prefer Negroes to whites as tenants and coppers."[173] Once mechanization came to cotton (after 1945), the tenants and sharecroppers were largely surplus; they moved to towns and cities.[citation needed] World War II See also: Military history of African Americans § World War II, and Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military § World War II Black soldiers tracking a sniper Omaha Beachhead, near Vierville-sur-Mer, France. 10 June 1944 A call for "The Double Victory" The African-American newspaper The Pittsburgh Courier called for the "double victory" or "Double V campaign" campaign in a 1942 editorial, saying that all Black people should work for "victory over our enemies at home and victory over our enemies on the battlefield abroad".[174] The newspaper argued that a victory of the Axis powers, especially Nazi Germany, would be a disaster for African-Americans while at the same time the war presented the opportunity "to persuade, embarrass, compel and shame our government and our nation...into a more enlightened attitude towards a tenth of its people".[174] The slogan of a "double victory" over fascism abroad and racism at home was widely taken up by African-Americans during the war.[174] Wartime service Eight Tuskegee Airmen in front of a P-40 fighter aircraft Over 1.9 million Black people served in uniform during World War II. They served in segregated units.[175][176] Black women served in the Army's WAAC and WAC, but very few served in the Navy.[177] The draft starkly exposed the poor living conditions of most African-Americans with the Selective Service Boards turning down 46% of the Black men called up on health grounds as compared to 30% of the white men called up.[174] At least a third of the black men in the South called up by the draft boards turned out to be illiterate.[174] Southern Black people fared badly on the Army General Classification Test (AGCT), an aptitude test designed to determine the most suitable role for those who were drafted, and which was not an IQ test.[178] Of the Black men from the South drafted, 84% fell into the two lowest categories on the AGCT.[179] Owing to the high failure rate caused by the almost non-existent education system for African-Americans in the South, the Army was forced to offer remedial instruction for Afro-Americans who fell into the lower categories of the AGCT.[179] By 1945, about 150, 000 Black men had learned how to read and write while in the Army.[179] The poor living conditions in rural America which afflicted both white and Black Americans led the Army to undertake remedial health work as well. Army optometrists fitted 2.25 million men suffering from poor eyesight with eyeglasses to allow them to be drafted while Army dentists fitted 2.5 million draftees who would have been otherwise disqualified for the bad state of their teeth with dentures.[180] Most of the Army's 231 training camps were located in the South, which was mostly rural and where land was cheaper.[181] Black people from outside of the South that were sent to the training camps found life in the South almost unbearable.[182] Tensions at army and navy training bases between Black and white trainees resulted in several outbreaks of racial violence with Black trainees sometimes being lynched.[182] In the so-called Battle of Bamber Bridge on 24–25 June 1943 in the Lancashire town of Bamber Bridge saw a shoot-out between white and Black soldiers that left one dead.[183] In an attempt to solve the problem of racial violence, the War Department in 1943 commissioned the director Frank Capra to make the propaganda film The Negro Soldier.[182] The segregated 92nd Division, which served in Italy, was noted for the antagonistic relations between its white officers and Black soldiers.[179] In an attempt to ease the racial tensions, the 92nd Division was integrated in 1944 by having the all Japanese-American 442nd Regimental Combat Team together with one white regiment assigned to it.[179] The segregated 93rd Division, which served in the Pacific, was assigned "mopping up" duties on the islands that the Americans mostly controlled.[179] Black servicemen greatly resented segregation and those serving in Europe complained that German POWs were served better food than what they were.[182] The Navy was segregated and Black sailors were usually assigned menial work such as stevedores.[184] At Port Chicago on 17 July 1944, while mostly Black stevedores were loading up two Navy supply ships, an explosion occurred that killed 320 men, of which 202 were Black.[185] The explosion was widely blamed on the lack of training for Black stevedores, and 50 of the survivors of the explosion refused an order to return to work, demanding safety training first.[186] At the subsequent court martial for the "Port Chicago 50" on the charges of mutiny, their defense lawyer, Thurgood Marshall stated: "Negroes in the Navy don't mind loading ammunition. They just want to know why they are the only ones doing the loading! They want to know why they are segregated; why they don't get promoted, and why the Navy disregarded official warnings by the San Francisco waterfront unions...that an explosion was inevitable if they persisted in using untrained seamen in the loading of ammunition".[186] Though the sailors were convicted, the Port Chicago disaster led the Navy in August 1944 to allow Black sailors to serve alongside white sailors on ships, through Black people could only make up 10% of the crew.[186] Through the Army was reluctant to send Black units into combat, famous segregated units, such as the Tuskegee Airmen and the U.S. 761st Tank Battalion proved their value in combat.[187] Approximately 75 percent of the soldiers who served in the European theater as truckers for the Red Ball Express and kept Allied supply lines open were African-American.[188] During the crisis of the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, the Army allowed several integrated infantry platoons to be formed, through these were broken up once the crisis passed.[184] However, the experiment of the integrated platoons in December 1944 showed that integration did not mean the collapse of military discipline as many claimed that it would, and was a factor in the later desegregation of the armed forces.[184] A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II.[189] The distinguished service of these units was a factor in President Harry S. Truman's order to end discrimination in the Armed Forces in July 1948, with the promulgation of Executive Order 9981. This led in turn to the integration of the Air Force and the other services by the early 1950s.[190][191] In his book A Rising Wind, Walter Francis White of the NAACP wrote: "World War II has immeasurably magnified the Negro's awareness of the American profession and practice of democracy...[Black veterans] will return home convinced that whatever betterment of their lot is achieved must come largely from their own efforts. They will return determined to use those efforts to the utmost".[192] Home front Rosie the Riveter Due to massive shortages as a result of the American entry into World War II, defense employers from Northern and Western cities went to the South to convince blacks and whites there to leave the region in promise of higher wages and better opportunities. As a result, African-Americans left the South in large numbers to munitions centers in the North and West to take advantage of the shortages caused by the war, sparking the Second Great Migration. While they somewhat lived in better conditions than the South (for instance, they could vote and send children to better schools), they nevertheless faced widespread discrimination due to bigotry and fear of competition of housing and jobs among white residents.[citation needed] When Roosevelt learned that many companies in the defense industry were violating the spirit, if not the letter of Executive Order 8802 by only employing Black people in menial positions such as janitors and denying them the opportunity to work as highly paid skilled laborers, he significantly strengthened the Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) with orders to fine the corporations that did not treat their Black employees equally.[193] In 1943, Roosevelt gave the FEPC a budget of half-million dollars and replaced the unpaid volunteers who had previously staffed the FEPC with a paid staff concentrated in regional headquarters across the nation with instructions to inspect the defense industry's factories to ensure the spirit and letter of Executive Order 8802 was being obeyed.[193] Roosevelt believed that having Black men and women employed in the defense industry working as skilled laborers would give them far higher wages than what they ever had before, and ultimately form the nucleus of a Black middle class.[193] When the president learned that some unions were pushing for black employees to be given menial "auxiliary" jobs in the factories, he instructed the National Labor Relations Board to decertify those unions.[193] In 1944, when the union for trolley drivers in Philadelphia went on strike to protest plans to hire African-Americans as trolley drivers, Roosevelt sent in troops to break the strike.[193] In 1942, Black people made up 3% of the workforce in the defense industry; by 1945 Black people made up 8% of the workforce in defense industry factories (Black people made up 10% of the population).[193] Racial tensions were also high between whites and ethnic minorities that cities like Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, and Harlem experienced race riots in 1943.[194] In May 1943, in Mobile, Alabama, when the local shipyard promoted some Black men up to be trained as welders, white workers rioted and seriously injured 11 of their Black co-workers.[183] In Los Angeles, the Zoot Suit riots of 3–8 June 1943 saw white servicemen attacking Chicano (Mexican-American) and Black youths for wearing zoot suits.[183] On 15 June 1943, in Beaumont, Texas, a pogrom saw a white mob smash up Black homes while lynching 2 Black men.[183] In Detroit, which expanded massively during the war years with 50, 000 Black people from the South and 200, 000 "hillbilly" whites from Appalachia moving to the city to work in the factories, competition for sparse rental housing had pushed tensions to the brink.[183] On 20 June 1943, false rumors that a white mob had lynched 3 Black men led to an outbreak of racial rioting in Detroit that left 34 dead, of whom 25 were Black.[183] On 1–2 August 1943, another race riot in Harlem left 6 Black people dead.[183] Politically, Black people left the Republican Party and joined the Democratic New Deal Coalition of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, whom they widely admired.[195] The political leaders, ministers and newspaper editors who shaped opinion resolved on a Double V campaign: Victory over German and Japanese fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build Black morale and head off radical action.[196] During the war years, the NAACP expanded tenfold, having over half a million members by 1945.[174] The new civil rights group Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), founded in 1942, started demonstrations demanding desegregation of buses, theaters and restaurants.[174] At one CORE demonstration outside a segregated restaurant in Washington, DC in 1944 had signs reading "We Die Together', Let's Eat Together" and "Are you for Hitler's Way or the American Way?".[174] In 1944, the Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal published his bestselling book An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy where he described in much detail the effects of white supremacy upon Black Americans, and predicated in the long run the Jim Crow regime was unsustainable, as he argued that after the war African-Americans would be not willing to accept a permanent second class status.[197] Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war.[198] Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, they escaped the cotton patch and took blue-collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP and CIO unions, these Black women fought a Double V campaign against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens.[199] In the South, Black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside Black women.[200][201] The most largest of the "hate strikes" was the strike by white women at the Western Electric factory in Baltimore, who objected to sharing a bathroom with Black women.[183] Hollywood "Stormy Weather" (1943) (starring Lena Horne, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and Cab Calloway's Band), along with Cabin in the Sky (1943) (starring Ethel Waters, Eddie "Rochester" Anderson, Lena Horne and Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong), and other musicals of the 1940s opened new roles for Black people in Hollywood. They broke through old stereotypes and far surpassed the limited, poorly paid roles available in race films produced for all-Black audiences.[202][203] Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790–2010. First and Second Great Migrations shown through changes in African American share of population in major U.S. cities, 1916–1930 and 1940–1970 Second Great Migration Main article: Second Great Migration (African American) The Second Great Migration was the migration of more than 5 million African Americans from the South to the other three regions of the United States. It took place from 1941, through World War II, and lasted until 1970.[204] It was much larger and of a different character than the first Great Migration (1910–1940). Some historians prefer to distinguish between the movements for those reasons. In the Second Great Migration, more than five million African Americans moved to cities in states in the Northeast, Midwest, and West, including the West Coast, where many skilled jobs in the defense industry were concentrated. More of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South. They were better educated and had better skills than people who did not migrate.[204] Compared to the more rural migrants of the period 1910–40, many African Americans in the South were already living in urban areas and had urban job skills before they relocated. They moved to take jobs in the burgeoning industrial cities and especially the many jobs in the defense industry during World War II. Workers who were limited to segregated, low-skilled jobs in Southern cities were able to get highly skilled, well-paid jobs at West Coast shipyards.[204] The effect of racially homogeneous communities composed largely of Black immigrants that formed because of spatial segregation in destination cities was that they were largely influenced by the Southern culture they brought with them. The food, music and even the discriminatory white police presence in these neighborhoods were all imported to a certain extent from the collective experiences of the highly concentrated African American migrants.[205] Writers have often assumed that Southern migrants contributed disproportionately to changes in the African-American family in the inner city. However, census data for 1940 through 1990 show that these families actually exhibited more traditional family patterns—more children living with two parents, more ever-married women living with their spouses, and fewer never-married mothers.[206] By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population. More than 80 percent lived in cities. Fifty-three percent remained in the Southern United States, while 40 percent lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent in the West.[204] Civil rights era This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "African-American history" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: Civil rights movement The Supreme Court handed down a landmark decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) of Topeka. This decision applied to public facilities, especially public schools. Reforms occurred slowly and only after concerted activism by African Americans. The ruling also brought new momentum to the Civil Rights Movement. Boycotts against segregated public transportation systems sprang up in the South, the most notable of which was the Montgomery bus boycott.[citation needed] Civil rights groups such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) organized across the South with tactics such as boycotts, voter registration campaigns, Freedom Rides and other nonviolent direct action, such as marches, pickets and sit-ins to mobilize around issues of equal access and voting rights. Southern segregationists fought back to block reform. The conflict grew to involve steadily escalating physical violence, bombings and intimidation by Southern whites. Law enforcement responded to protesters with batons, electric cattle prods, fire hoses, attack dogs and mass arrests.[citation needed] In Virginia, state legislators, school board members and other public officials mounted a campaign of obstructionism and outright defiance to integration called Massive Resistance. It entailed a series of actions to deny state funding to integrated schools and instead fund privately run "segregation academies" for white students. Farmville, Virginia, in Prince Edward County, was one of the plaintiff African-American communities involved in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision. As a last-ditch effort to avoid court-ordered desegregation, officials in the county shut down the county's entire public school system in 1959 and it remained closed for five years.[207] White students were able to attend private schools established by the community for the sole purpose of circumventing integration. The largely Black rural population of the county had little recourse. Some families were split up as parents sent their children to live with relatives in other locales to attend public school; but the majority of Prince Edward's more than 2,000 black children, as well as many poor whites, simply remained unschooled until federal court action forced the schools to reopen five years later.[citation needed] Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his famous "I Have a Dream" speech during the March on Washington Perhaps the high point of the Civil Rights Movement was the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which brought more than 250,000 marchers to the grounds of the Lincoln Memorial and the National Mall in Washington, D.C., to speak out for an end to southern racial violence and police brutality, equal opportunity in employment, equal access in education and public accommodations. The organizers of the march were called the "Big Six" of the Civil Rights Movement: Bayard Rustin the strategist who has been called the "invisible man" of the Civil Rights Movement; labor organizer and initiator of the march, A. Philip Randolph; Roy Wilkins of the NAACP; Whitney Young, Jr., of the National Urban League; Martin Luther King Jr., of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC); James Farmer of the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE); and John Lewis of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Also active behind the scenes and sharing the podium with Dr. King was Dorothy Height, head of the National Council of Negro Women. It was at this event, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, that King delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech.[citation needed] This march, the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade, and other events were credited with putting pressure on President John F. Kennedy, and then Lyndon B. Johnson, that culminated in the passage the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions.[citation needed] President Johnson signs the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964. The "Mississippi Freedom Summer" of 1964 brought thousands of idealistic youth, black and white, to the state to run "freedom schools", to teach basic literacy, history and civics. Other volunteers were involved in voter registration drives. The season was marked by harassment, intimidation and violence directed at civil rights workers and their host families. The disappearance of three youths, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner in Philadelphia, Mississippi, captured the attention of the nation. Six weeks later, searchers found the savagely beaten body of Chaney, a Black man, in a muddy dam alongside the remains of his two white companions, who had been shot to death. There was national outrage at the escalating injustices of the "Mississippi Blood Summer", as it by then had come to be known, and at the brutality of the murders.[citation needed] In 1965 the Selma Voting Rights Movement, its Selma to Montgomery marches, and the tragic murders of two activists associated with the march, inspired President Lyndon B. Johnson to call for the full Voting Rights Act of 1965, which struck down barriers to black enfranchisement. In 1966 the Chicago Open Housing Movement, followed by the passage of the 1968 Fair Housing Act, was a capstone to more than a decade of major legislation during the civil rights movement.[citation needed] By this time, African Americans who questioned the effectiveness of nonviolent protest had gained a greater voice. More militant Black leaders, such as Malcolm X of the Nation of Islam and Eldridge Cleaver of the Black Panther Party, called for Black people to defend themselves, using violence, if necessary. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, the Black Power movement urged African Americans to look to Africa for inspiration and emphasized Black solidarity, rather than integration.[citation needed] Post-civil rights era Main article: Post-Civil Rights era in African-American history Further information: Black flight, New Great Migration, and Black Lives Matter This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "African-American history" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The first African-American President of the United States, Barack Obama Politically and economically, Black people have made substantial strides in the post-civil rights era. Civil rights leader Jesse Jackson, who ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, brought unprecedented support and leverage to Black people in politics.[208] In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African-American elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992 Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois became the first Black woman elected to the U.S. Senate. There were 8,936 Black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 Black mayors.[209] The 39 African-American members of Congress form the Congressional Black Caucus, which serves as a political bloc for issues relating to African Americans. The appointment of Black people to high federal offices—including General Colin Powell, Chairman of the U.S. Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989–93, United States Secretary of State, 2001–05; Condoleezza Rice, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 2001–04, Secretary of State in, 2005–09; Ron Brown, United States Secretary of Commerce, 1993–96; and Supreme Court justices Thurgood Marshall and Clarence Thomas—also demonstrates the increasing visibility of Black people in the political arena.[210] Economic progress for Black people reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to Forbes richest lists, Oprah Winfrey was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only Black billionaire in 2004, 2005, and 2006.[211] Not only was Winfrey the world's only Black billionaire but she has been the only Black person on the Forbes 400 list nearly every year since 1995. BET founder Bob Johnson briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. With Winfrey the only African American wealthy enough to rank among America's 400 richest people,[212] Black people currently comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite and comprise 13% of the U.S. population. The dramatic political breakthrough came in the 2008 election, with the election of Barack Obama, the son of a Black Kenyan father and a white American mother. He won overwhelming support from African-American voters in the Democratic primaries, even as his main opponent Hillary Clinton had the support of many Black politicians. African Americans continued to support Obama throughout his term.[213] After completing his first term, Obama ran for a second term. In 2012, he won the presidential election against candidate Mitt Romney and was re-elected as the president of the United States. The post-civil rights era is also notable for the New Great Migration, in which millions of African Americans have returned to the South including Texas, Georgia, Florida and North Carolina, often to pursue increased economic opportunities in now-desegregated southern cities.[citation needed] On August 11, 2020, Senator Kamala Harris (D-CA) was announced as the first African-American woman to run for vice-president on a major party presidential ticket.[214] She was elected vice president in the 2020 United States presidential election. Social issues After the Civil Rights Movement gains of the 1950s–1970s, due to government neglect, unfavorable social policies, high poverty rates, changes implemented in the criminal justice system and laws, and a breakdown in traditional family units, African-American communities have been suffering from extremely high incarceration rates. African Americans have the highest imprisonment rate of any major ethnic group in the world.[215] The Southern states, which historically had been involved in slavery and post-Reconstruction oppression, now produce the highest rates of incarceration and death penalty application.[216][217] Historiography The history of slavery has always been a major research topic for white scholars, but until the 1950s, they generally focused on the political and constitutional themes as they were debated by white politicians; they did not study the lives of the enslaved black people. During Reconstruction and the late 19th century, Black people became major actors in the South. The Dunning School of white scholars generally cast Black people as pawns of white Carpetbaggers during this period, but W. E. B. Du Bois, a Black historian, and Ulrich B. Phillips, a white historian, studied the African-American experience in depth. Du Bois' study of Reconstruction provided a more objective context for evaluating its achievements and weaknesses; in addition, he did studies of contemporary Black life. Phillips set the main topics of inquiry that still guide the analysis of slave economics.[citation needed] During the first half of the 20th century, Carter G. Woodson was the major Black scholar who studied and promoted the Black historical experience. Woodson insisted that the scholarly study of the African-American experience should be sound, creative, restorative, and, most important, it should be directly relevant to the Black community. He popularized Black history with a variety of innovative strategies, including the Association for the Study of Negro Life outreach activities, Negro History Week (now Black History Month, in February), and a popular Black history magazine. Woodson democratized, legitimized, and popularized Black history.[218] Knowledge of Black history Surveys of 11th- and 12th-grade students and adults in 2005 show that American schools have given students an awareness of some famous figures in Black history. Both groups were asked to name 10 famous Americans, excluding presidents. Of those named, the three most mentioned were Black: 67% named Martin Luther King Jr., 60% Rosa Parks, and 44% Harriet Tubman. Among adults, King was second (at 36%) and Parks was tied for fourth with 30%, while Tubman tied for 10th place with Henry Ford, at 16%. When distinguished historians were asked in 2006 to name the most prominent Americans, Parks and Tubman did not make the top 100.[222] Scholars of African-American history Herbert Aptheker Lerone Bennett, Jr. Ira Berlin John Wesley Blassingame Mark Castro John Henrik Clarke W. E. B. Du Bois Lonnie Bunch Eric Foner Elizabeth Fox-Genovese John Hope Franklin Henry Louis Gates, Jr. Eugene Genovese Annette Gordon-Reed Lorenzo Greene Herbert Gutman Steven Hahn Vincent Harding Robert L. Harris, Jr. Asa Grant Hilliard III George G. M. James William Loren Katz Peter Kolchin Brent Leggs David Levering Lewis Leon F. Litwack Rayford Logan Malcolm X Manning Marable Thurgood Marshall Gwendolyn Midlo Hall Nell Irvin Painter Rosa Parks Harry A. Ploski Benjamin Quarles Cedric Robinson Joel Augustus Rogers Mark S. Weiner Charles H. Wesley Isabel Wilkerson Carter G. 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Black Tudors" The Untold Story. Oneworld Publications. Gates, Henry Louis (2014). "How Many Slaves Landed in the US?". The Root. Retrieved July 8, 2018. Incredibly, most of the 42 million members of the African-American community descend from this tiny group of less than half a million Africans. "America's Black Holocaust Museum | How Many Africans Were Really Taken to the U.S During the Slave Trade?". abhmuseum.org. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 2018-09-05. Schneider, Dorothy; Schneider, Carl J. (2007). Slavery in America. Infobase Publishing. p. 554. ISBN 978-1-4381-0813-1. Kolchin, Peter (2003). American Slavery, 1619–1877 (2nd ed.). New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0809016303. Bibko, Julia (2016). "The American Revolution and the Black Loyalist Exodus". History: A Journal of Student Research. 1 (1). Foner, Eric (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-19-513755-2. William J. Cooper, Jr. and Thomas E. Terrill (2008). The American South: A History. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 363. ISBN 9780742563995. Leonard L. 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provision for a city charter amendment passed by the Minneapolis City Council Referendum on city charter amendment revision originally announced for November 2020, but would later be postponed Federal forces began to be deployed in June 2020 Operation Legend began in July 2020 Continued nationwide protests over racial and economic inequality, centering on broad social issues including police brutality Deaths, arrests and damages Death(s) 19+ (May 26–June 8, 2020)[3] Arrested 14,000+[4] Property damage $550 million in Minneapolis–Saint Paul (May 26–June 6, 2020)[5] $1–2 billion in insured damages in the United States (May 26–June 8, 2020)[6] The George Floyd protests were a series of protests and civil unrest against police brutality and racism that began in Minneapolis on May 26, 2020, and largely took place during 2020.[7][8] The civil unrest and protests began as part of international reactions to the murder of George Floyd, a 46-year-old African American man who was murdered during an arrest after Derek Chauvin, a Minneapolis Police Department officer, knelt on Floyd's neck for 9 minutes and 29 seconds[9] as three other officers looked on and prevented passers-by from intervening.[16] Chauvin and the other three officers involved were later arrested.[17] In April 2021, Chauvin was found guilty of second-degree unintentional murder, third-degree murder, and second-degree manslaughter.[18] Chauvin was sentenced to 22.5 years in prison with possibility of supervised release after 15 years for second-degree murder in June 2021.[19] The George Floyd protest movement began hours after his murder as bystander video and word of mouth began to spread.[20] Protests first emerged at the East 38th and Chicago Avenue street intersection in Minneapolis, the location of Floyd's arrest and murder, and other locations in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area of Minnesota.[21] Protests quickly spread nationwide and to over 2,000 cities and towns in over 60 countries in support of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement.[22][23][24] Polls in the summer of 2020 estimated that between 15 million and 26 million people had participated at some point in the demonstrations in the United States, making the protests the largest in U.S. history.[25][26][27] While the majority of protests were peaceful,[28] demonstrations in some cities escalated into riots, looting,[29] and street skirmishes with police and counter-protesters. Some police responded to protests with instances of notable violence, including against reporters.[30][31][32] At least 200 cities in the U.S. had imposed curfews by early June 2020, while more than 30 states and Washington, D.C. activated over 96,000 National Guard, State Guard, 82nd Airborne, and 3rd Infantry Regiment service members.[33][34][35][36] The deployment, when combined with preexisting deployments related to the C-19 pandemic and other natural disasters, constituted the largest military operation other than war in U.S. history.[37] By the end of June 2020, at least 14,000 people had been arrested.[4][38][39] By November 2020, 25 people had died in relation to the unrest. A report from the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project estimated that between May 26 and August 22, 93% of individual protests were "peaceful and nondestructive"[40][41] and research from the Nonviolent Action Lab and Crowd Counting Consortium estimated that by the end of June, 96.3% of 7,305 demonstrations involved no injuries and no property damage.[42] However, arson, vandalism, and looting that occurred between May 26 and June 8 caused approximately $1–2 billion in damages nationally, the highest recorded damage from civil disorder in U.S. history, and surpassing the record set during the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[6][43] The protests precipitated a worldwide debate on policing and racial injustice that has led to numerous legislative proposals on federal, state, and municipal levels in the U.S. intended to combat police misconduct, systemic racism, qualified immunity and police brutality.[44][45] The protests led to a wave of monument removals and name changes throughout the world[46] and occurred during the ongoing C19 pandemic and amid the 2020 U.S. presidential election season.[47][48] Protests continued through 2020 and into 2021,[49] most notably in Minneapolis at the 38th and Chicago Avenue street intersection where Floyd was murdered that activists have referred to as George Floyd Square.[50][51] Several demonstrations coincided with the criminal trial of Chauvin in March and April 2021 and the one-year anniversary of Floyd's murder in May 2021. Officials in Minnesota and elsewhere proactively mobilized counter-protest measures for Chauvin's trial, but it did not result in unrest like what happened immediately after Floyd's murder.[52] The occupied protest at George Floyd Square persisted into 2022.[53][54] Local officials in Minneapolis–Saint Paul prepared counter-protest measures in early 2022 for the start of the federal trial for the other three police officers at the scene of Floyd's murder.[55][56] Relatively small protests took place during the trial and after the verdict announcement.[57] Background Police brutality protests in the United States Further information: Police brutality in the United States, Crime in the United States, and Race and crime in the United States Cases of police misconduct and fatal use of force by law enforcement officers[58] in the U.S., particularly against African Americans, have long led the civil rights movement and other activists to protest against a lack of police accountability in incidents they see as involving excessive force. Many protests during the civil rights movement were in response to the perception of police brutality, including the 1965 Watts riots which resulted in the deaths of 34 people, mostly African Americans.[59] The largest post-civil rights movement protest in the 20th century was the 1992 Los Angeles riots, which were in response to the acquittal of police officers responsible for excessive force against Rodney King, an African American man.[60] In 2014, the shooting of Michael Brown by police in Ferguson, Missouri, resulted in local protests and unrest while the killing of Eric Garner in New York City resulted in numerous national protests. After Eric Garner and George Floyd repeatedly said "I can't breathe" during their arrests, the phrase became a protest slogan against police brutality. In 2015 the death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore police custody resulted in riots in the city and nationwide protests as part of the Black Lives Matter movement.[61] Several nationally publicized incidents occurred in Minnesota, including the 2015 shooting of Jamar Clark in Minneapolis; the 2016 shooting of Philando Castile in Falcon Heights;[62] and the 2017 shooting of Justine Damond. In 2016, Tony Timpa was killed by Dallas police officers in the same way as George Floyd.[63] In August 2019, Elijah McClain died after Aurora police ordered paramedics to administer ketamine under dubious circumstances.[64] In March 2020, the fatal shooting of Breonna Taylor by police executing a search warrant at her Kentucky apartment was also widely publicized.[65] Murder of George Floyd Main article: Murder of George Floyd Tribute items left at site of Floyd's murder forming a makeshift memorial Memorial at the site of Floyd's murder According to a police statement, on May 25, 2020, at 8:08 p.m. CDT,[66] Minneapolis Police Department (MPD) officers responded to a 9-1-1 call regarding a "forgery in progress" on Chicago Avenue South in Powderhorn, Minneapolis. MPD Officers Thomas K. Lane and J. Alexander Kueng arrived with their body cameras turned on. A store employee told officers that the man was in a nearby car. Officers approached the car and ordered George Floyd, a 46-year-old African American man, who according to police "appeared to be under the influence", to exit the vehicle, at which point he "physically resisted". According to the MPD, officers "were able to get the suspect into handcuffs, and noted he appeared to be suffering medical distress. Officers called for an ambulance." Once Floyd was handcuffed, officers Kueng and Lane attempted to help Floyd to their squad car, but at 8:14 p.m., Floyd stiffened up and fell to the ground. MPD Officers Derek Chauvin and Tou Thao then arrived and made more failed attempts to get Floyd into the squad car.[67] Floyd, who was still handcuffed, went to the ground face down. Officer Kueng held Floyd's back and Lane held his legs. Chauvin placed his left knee in the area of Floyd's head and neck. A Facebook Live livestream recorded by a bystander showed Officer Derek Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck.[68][69] Floyd repeatedly tells Chauvin "Please" and "I can't breathe", while a bystander is heard telling the police officer, "You got him down. Let him breathe."[70] After some time, a bystander points out that Floyd was bleeding from his nose while another bystander tells the police that Floyd is "not even resisting arrest right now", to which the police tell the bystanders that Floyd was "talking, he's fine". A bystander replies saying Floyd "ain't fine". A bystander then protests that the police were preventing Floyd from breathing, urging them to "get him off the ground ... You could have put him in the car by now. He's not resisting arrest or nothing."[69] Floyd then goes silent and motionless. Chauvin does not remove his knee until an ambulance arrives. Emergency medical services put Floyd on a stretcher. Not only had Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck for about seven minutes (including four minutes after Floyd stopped moving) but another video showed an additional two officers had also knelt on Floyd while another officer watched.[71][72] A George Floyd mural created by protesters in Portland, Oregon Although the police report stated that medical services were requested prior to the time Floyd was placed in handcuffs,[73] according to the Minneapolis Star Tribune, Emergency Medical Services arrived at the scene six minutes after getting the call.[74][improper synthesis?] Medics were unable to detect a pulse, and Floyd was pronounced dead at the hospital.[75][74] A contested May 26 autopsy conducted by the Hennepin County Medical Examiner's Office claimed there were "no physical findings that support a diagnosis of traumatic asphyxia or strangulation", and instead attributed the death to underlying health conditions and "potential intoxicants".[76][77] On May 26, Chauvin and the other three officers were fired.[78] Chauvin was charged with third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter;[79] the former charge was later changed to second-degree murder.[80] On June 1, a private autopsy commissioned by the family of Floyd ruled the death a homicide and found that Floyd had died due to asphyxiation from sustained pressure, which conflicted with the original autopsy report done earlier that week.[81] Shortly after, the official post-mortem declared Floyd's death a homicide.[82] Video footage of Officer Derek Chauvin applying 8 minutes 15 seconds of sustained pressure to Floyd's neck generated global attention and raised questions about the use of force by law enforcement.[83] On June 25, 2021, Chauvin was sentenced to 22 years and 6 months in prison with possibility of supervised release after serving two-thirds of his sentence or 15 years for second-degree murder.[19] Protests World map showing sites of protests Map of protests around the world with over 100 participants. Minneapolis-St. Paul is marked in red. (click for a dynamic version of the map) In Minneapolis–Saint Paul Main articles: George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul and George Floyd Square occupied protest Organized protests began in Minneapolis on May 26, the day after George Floyd's murder and when a video of the incident had circulated widely in the media. By midday, people had gathered by the thousands and set up a makeshift memorial.[84][85] Organizers of the rally emphasized keeping the protest peaceful.[86] Protesters and Floyd's family demanded that all four officers at the scene of his arrest and murder be charged with murder and that judicial consequences be swift.[87][88] That evening, the protest rally turned into a march to the Minneapolis Police Department's third precinct station where the officers were believed to work. After the main protest group disbanded on the night of May 26, a much smaller group, numbering in the hundreds, spray-painted the building, threw rocks and bottles, broke a window at the station, and vandalized a squad car. A skirmish soon broke out between the vandals and protesters trying to stop them.[85][86][89][90] At around 8 p.m., police fired tear gas and rubber bullets at demonstrators, some of whom had thrown water bottles at police officers.[91] Protests were held at several locations throughout the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area in subsequent days. The situation escalated the nights of May 27 to 29 where widespread arson, rioting, and looting took place, which were noted as a contrast to daytime protests that were characterized as mostly peaceful events.[90] Some initial acts of property destruction on May 27 by a 32-year-old man with ties to white supremacist organizations, who local police investigators said was deliberately inciting racial tension, led to a chain reaction of fires and looting.[92] The unrest, including people overtaking the Minneapolis third precinct police station and setting it on fire the night of May 28, garnered significant national and international media attention.[89][93] After state officials mobilized Minnesota National Guard troops in its largest deployment since World War II,[94][95] the violent unrest subsided and mostly peaceful protests resumed.[89] However, the violence by early June 2020 had resulted in two deaths,[96][97] 604 arrests,[98][99] an estimated $550 million[5] in property damage to 1,500 locations, making the Minneapolis–Saint Paul events alone the second-most destructive period of local unrest in United States history, after the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[100][101][102][99] About 60% of the local financial losses were uninsured.[103] In Minneapolis, protesters barricaded the street intersection at East 38th Street and Chicago Avenue where Floyd was murdered and transformed it into a makeshift memorial site, which was adorned with public art installments and described as like a "shrine". Thousands of visitors protested and grieved at the site.[104][105] When Minneapolis city officials attempted to negotiate the re-opening of the intersection in August 2020, protesters demanded that before removing cement barricades the city meet a list of 24 demands,[106] which included holding the trial for the four officers present during Floyd's murder.[107] On September 11, 2020, hundreds rallied outside a downtown Minneapolis court building were a pretrial hearing was held for the four police officers involved in Floyd's murder.[108] On October 7, 2020, several protests were held in Minneapolis to express anger over Chauvin's release from jail pending trial after he posted bond for his $1 million bail. Minnesota Governor Tim Walz deployed 100 National Guards troops, 100 Minnesota state police troops, and 75 conservation officers.[109] Fifty-one arrests were reported that night, mostly for misdemeanor offenses, such as unlawful assembly.[110] In early 2021, Minneapolis and Hennepin County officials spent $1 million on fencing and other barricades for police stations and other government buildings to prepare for potential civil unrest during the trial of Derek Chauvin in March. State and local officials also made plans to deploy thousands of police officers and National Guard soldiers.[111] In early March, in the days preceding Chauvin's trial, local organizers staged peaceful protests[112] with thousands of people marching in the streets.[113] The situation at George Floyd Square in Minneapolis grew tense when a person was fatally shot inside the protester-held "autonomous zone" during an altercation on March 6, 2021.[112][114] In March and April 2021, groups of protesters gathered at George Floyd Square and outside Hennepin County Government Center in Minneapolis during Chauvin's trial,[115] but the streets of Minneapolis were largely empty of mass demonstrations like those in late May and early June 2020.[116] A sign at the George Floyd Square occupied protest, May 18, 2021 In April 2021, 3,000 National Guard troops and law enforcement officers were called from neighboring states in preparation for potential unrest over the outcome of the Derek Chauvin trial. On April 20, 2021, Derek Chauvin was found guilty of murdering George Floyd. By then, Floyd's murder had resulted in one of the largest civil rights protest movements in recent decades, and the Minneapolis–Saint Paul region had experienced a prolonged series of protests and intermittent unrest over issues of police brutality and racial injustice.[117][118] As news of the Chauvin's guilty verdict spread on April 20, 2021, a crowd of one-thousand people marched in downtown Minneapolis and others gathered at 38th and Chicago Avenue to celebrate the outcome.[50][51] Demonstrations in Minneapolis during Chauvin's criminal trial and verdict announcement were largely peaceful.[119] Following Chauvin's verdict, many activists in Minneapolis did not perceive that "Justice for Floyd" was final as J. Alexander Kueng, Thomas Lane and Tou Thao still awaited trial, and issues of systemic racism and police reform had not been addressed satisfactorily.[120] George Floyd Square occupation protest organizers, who had transformed the street intersection where Floyd was murdered into an "autonomous zone" adored with public art, said they would continue to protest.[121][122][123][124][125] Activists changed a marquee that had counted down the days to Chauvin's trial to read, "Justice served?", and chanted, "One down! Three to go!", in reference to the looming trials of officers of the other three officers who participated in Floyd's arrest and subsequent murder.[126] The street intersection area had been a "continuous site of protest" since the day Floyd was murdered,[127] and at nearly a year after his murder, thousands of people from multiple countries had visited the active,[128] ongoing[129] protest and memorial site there.[129] People gathered at multiple locations in Minneapolis for the announcement of Chauvin's sentencing on June 25, 2021, when he received a 22.5-year prison term. Family and civil rights activists expressed disappointment and said it should have been for the 30-year maximum, and they advocated for passage of the federal George Floyd Justice in Policing Act legislation. Several demonstrations were held in Minneapolis the evening of June 25. Civil rights activists and protesters noted the forthcoming civil rights case against the four police officers at the scene of Floyd's murder, and the criminal case against former officers Kueng, Lane, and Thao scheduled for March 2022.[130][131][132] Though the City of Minneapolis began the process of reopening the street intersection at George Floyd Square to vehicular traffic in June 2021, organizers of the protest movement rooted there still considered their presence an "occupation" and "resistance".[133] The square hosted a celebration of life for Floyd on October 14, 2021.[134] By December 23, 2021, the occupied protest had persisted at George Floyd Square for 19 consecutive months.[53] Activists in Minneapolis had vowed to continue protesting until the outcome of the criminal case of all involved officers at the scene of Floyd's death. The criminal trial was scheduled to begin on June 13, 2022.[135][136][137] In early 2022, local officials prepared counter-protest measures and for potential unrest ahead of the January 20 schedule start of the federal civil rights trial of Kueng, Lane, and Thao. Officials erected security fencing around the Warren E. Burger Federal Building in Saint Paul, Minnesota, that contained the courtroom for the trial.[55][56][138][119] Protest demonstrations were held in the streets surrounding the courtroom building during the trial.[139][140] On February 24, 2022, Kueng, Lane, and Thao were convicted on all federal civil rights charges they faced at trial. A small group of protesters gathered outside the court building in Saint Paul and at the location in Minneapolis where Floyd was murdered while the verdict was read.[57] Elsewhere in the United States Main article: List of George Floyd protests in the United States 2020 George Floyd protest arrests reported to the DOJ or FBI as of June 6, 2020 Protests outside the Minneapolis area were first reported on May 27 in Memphis and Los Angeles. It is unclear if demonstrators were reacting to the graphic video of Floyd's murder or the culmination of a string of black American deaths, preceded by Ahmaud Arbery in Atlanta on February 23 and Breonna Taylor in Louisville on March 13. By May 28, protests had sprung up in several major U.S. cities with demonstrations increasing each day.[141][142][143] By June, protests had been held in all U.S. states. At least 200 cities had imposed curfews, and at least 27 states and Washington, D.C., activated over 62,000 National Guard personnel in response to the unrest.[144][36] In Seattle, starting in early June, protesters occupied an area of several city blocks after the police vacated it, declaring it the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone, where according to protesters "the police are forbidden, food is free and documentaries are screened at night". On June 11, President Trump challenged mayor Jenny Durkan and governor Jay Inslee to "take back your city", and implying, according to Durkan, the possibility of a military response.[145][146] On June 8, 2020, the police-free Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone was established in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Seattle. On June 10, thousands of academics, universities, scientific institutions, professional bodies and publishing houses around the world shut down to give researchers time to reflect and act upon anti-Black racism in academia.[147] Organizations involved with #ShutDownSTEM day included Nature Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the American Physical Society. On June 14, an estimated 15,000 people gathered outside the Brooklyn Museum at Grand Army Plaza for the Liberation March, a silent protest in response to police brutality and violence against black transgender women. Frustrated by the lack of media coverage over the deaths of Nina Pop, who was stabbed in Sikeston, Missouri, on May 3 and Tony McDade, who was shot by police in Tallahassee, Florida, on May 27, artist and drag performer West Dakota and her mentor, drag queen Merrie Cherry, decided to organize a silent rally inspired by the 1917 NAACP Silent Parade.[148][149] The march generated widespread media attention as one of the largest peaceful protests in modern New York City history.[150][151] On June 19, Juneteenth, the International Longshore and Warehouse Union (ILWU) shut down ports on the West Coast in solidarity with protesters. An educator from the University of Washington said that the union has a history of protest and leftist politics since its founding: "[The ILWU] understood that division along the lines of race only benefited employers, because it weakened the efforts of workers to act together and to organize together.[152] The UAW also asked members to join the protests by standing down for 8 minutes and 46 seconds, the amount of time Chauvin was initially reported to have held his knee to Floyd's neck.[153][154] A protester being arrested in Columbus, Ohio, on May 30, 2020 On June 17, in response to the protests, three different police reform plans, plans from the Republicans, the Democrats, and the White House, were unveiled aiming to curb police brutality and the use of violence by law enforcement.[155] On June 25, NPR reported that the hopes for passage were doubtful because they were "short-circuited by a lack of bipartisan consensus on an ultimate plan [and] the issue is likely stalled, potentially until after the fall election".[156] Protests continued over the weekend of June 19 in many cities, and observations of Juneteenth gained a new awareness.[24] Jon Batiste, bandleader for The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, took part in a Juneteenth day of protests, marches, rallies and vigils to "celebrate, show solidarity, and fight for equal rights and treatment of Black people" in Brooklyn. Batiste also appeared in concert with Matt Whitaker in a performance presented in partnership with Sing For Hope, performed on the steps of the Brooklyn Public Library.[157] By the end of June, more than 4,700 demonstrations had occurred in the United States—a daily average of 140—with an estimate of 15 million and 26 million total participants.[158] Protests had occurred in over 40% of the counties in the United States.[26] Protests in the aftermath of Floyd's murder were then considered the largest in United States history.[26][158] As of July 3, protests were ongoing.[26] On July 4, the Independence Day holiday in the United States, several protests were held, including in several cities where protests had been going on since the day after Floyd's murder.[159] On July 20, the Strike for Black Lives, a mass walkout intended to raise awareness of systemic racism, featured thousands of workers across the United States walking off their jobs for approximately 8 minutes, in honor of Floyd.[160] The theme for the March on Washington held in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 2020, was, "Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks", a reference to Floyd's arrest by Chauvin.[161] Masked protesters in Philadelphia on June 2, 2020 Over the Labor Day holiday weekend, which the Saturday marked 100 nights of protests since Floyd's murder, marches and rallies where held in many cities.[162] In Miami, Florida, protesters on September 7, 2020, commemorated Floyd's murder and pressured local authorities to enact changes to policing policies, such as banning chokeholds during arrests.[163] To mark what would have been Floyd's 47th birthday, groups across the United States staged protest events on October 14, 2020.[164] Rallies and vigils were held in Minneapolis, Brooklyn, and Los Angeles, among other places. In Portland, Oregon, where Black Lives Matter protests had been held daily since Floyd's murder, demonstrators staged a sit-in.[165] For some Black Americans, particularly a group interviewed in George Floyd's hometown in Houston, Texas, the protests over Floyd's murder transformed to greater political activity and increased voter turnout in the November 2020 election.[166] Terrance Floyd, George's brother, and other family members rallied voters in support of the candidacy of Joe Biden, and they made an appearance with the Biden family at a campaign event in Tallahassee, Florida. Terrence Floyd also rallied voters in New York City on the November 3, 2020, Election Day.[167] By December, the protest movement was still "deeply rooted" at George Floyd Square, an occupied protest of the East 38th Street and Chicago Avenue intersection in Minneapolis where Floyd was killed."[105] 2021 In many parts of the United States, protests over Floyd's murder gradually diminished over time. In Portland, Oregon, however, Floyd's murder resulted in a yearlong period of "near-continuous protests" over racial injustice and police violence, at times featuring clashes between demonstrators and authorities and resulting in property damage.[168] In Boston, activists rallied on March 4, 2021, to demand the conviction of all four officers present at the scene of Floyd's murder and for local authorities to investigate past cases where police officers used excessive force.[169] Two days later, thousands marched in Boston to call for justice for Floyd as part of a coordinated, 17-state set of rallies.[170] In Salt Lake City, activists protested Floyd's murder by staging a car caravan on March 6, 2021.[171] Prayer vigils seeking justice for Floyd were held in conjunction with the Chauvin trial at several locations. In Houston, Texas, Floyd's family held an event on April 9, 2021.[172] In Maryland, a group gathered to pray that for justice for Floyd and his family as the jury began deliberations in the Chauvin criminal trial on April 19, 2021.[173] People in many cities in the United States reacted to Chauvin's murder conviction on April 20, 2021, with largely peaceful demonstrations. Some jurisdictions had proactively mobilized National Guard troops and declared states of emergency in preparation for possible violence,[174] and some businesses had boarded up to prevent potential looting.[175] Many activists perceived the guilty verdict as just one step in the process to obtain justice over Floyd's murder.[176] At nearly a year after Floyd's death, civil rights activists continued to call for passage of the federal George Floyd Justice in Policing Act.[177][178] Many activists believed that "justice for George Floyd" required changing the systems of policing and criminal justice in a way that would have prevented his murder.[179][177][178] On April 23, 2021, in Austin, Texas, activists rallied outside the state's capitol to call for passage of the Texas’ George Floyd Act—reform legislation introduced to ban chokeholds and require officers to intervene to stop excessive use of force—that had stalled in the state legislature.[180] On May 6, 2021, Black mothers led a march in Washington, D.C., to encourage passage federal police reform legislation named after Floyd.[181] On May 19, 2021, in Nevada, protesters jammed phone lines to the state legislature after police reform legislation introduced as result of the global protest movement begun by Floyd's murder did not advance.[182] By late May 2021, Floyd's murder, and the video of it, had given way to a yearlong, nationwide movement featuring the largest mass protests in United States history.[20] To commemorate the one-year anniversary of his murder in a several-day event titled "One Year, What's Changed", the George Floyd Memorial Foundation, a non-profit organization founded by Floyd's family, planned marches and rallies in Minneapolis, New York, and Houston for May 23, 2021, and called for two days of virtual activism everywhere in the United States in support of federal police reform legislation.[183][184][185] At a rally in New York City outside Brooklyn Borough Hall on May 23, 2021, Terrance Floyd, George's brother, called on the crowd to continue advocating for police reform and for communities to “stay woke”.[186] Civil rights activist Al Sharpton said, "convicting Chauvin is not enough", and encouraged congress to pass the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act, as well as continued activism ahead of the criminal trials of Lane, Kueng, and Thao and the federal civil rights trial of all four officers.[187] By May 25, 2021, the anniversary of Floyd's murder, the United States had experienced a yearlong movement to address racial injustice in policing.[188] Several street protests were held in many locations in the United States to mark the anniversary.[158] In New York City, protesters marched and then knelt for 9 minutes and 29 seconds while blocking traffic.[189][158] A rally in Portland, Oregon, was peaceful in the afternoon, but at night, 150 demonstrators set fire to a dumpster outside the Multnomah County Justice Center and damaged other property. Police declared the gathering a riot and made five arrests.[190][191][158] Most demonstrations—which included street marches, prayer services, and festivals—in the United States were peaceful. At many rallies, protesters expressed disappointment with the lack of change to policing policies and budgets, and some said they would continue protesting and advocating for their desired goals.[158] International Protest at Alexanderplatz in Berlin on June 6, 2020 Main articles: List of George Floyd protests outside the United States and Reactions to the George Floyd protests § International Solidarity protests over Floyd's murder quickly spread worldwide. Protests in Canada, Europe, Oceania, Asia, and Africa rallied against what they perceived as racial discrimination and police brutality, with some protests aimed at United States embassies.[192] Protesters globally also called on lawmakers in the United States to address the issues of police violence and the police-state structure.[179] Over the weekend of June 7 and 8, surfers around the world held a "Paddle Out", a Hawaiian mourning tradition, for George Floyd and all the lives lost to police violence. Thousands observed the tradition in Honolulu, Hawaii,[193] La Jolla, Hermosa Beach and Santa Monica, California, Galveston, Hackensack, New Jersey, Rockaway Beach, New York,[194] Biarritz, France, Senegal and Australia.[195][196] Floyd's murder came as the global Black Lives Matter movement had been slowly building for years, but outrage over what was captured in a bystander's video and Floyd's dying words, "I can't breathe", resulted in solidarity protests in more than 50 countries and led to what was described as a "social awaking" on issues of racial injustice and brought renewed attention on past police brutality cases.[197] As a jury deliberated in Chauvin's criminal trial, a vigil for Floyd was held on April 19, 2021, in Melbourne, Australia.[198] By the conclusion of the criminal trial of Derek Chauvin on April 20, 2021, millions of people worldwide had viewed video footage of Floyd's murder and protests were ongoing internationally over issues of police brutality and systemic racism.[199] The murder conviction of Chauvin was celebrated by activists in many countries and several of them expressed their desire for further progress on racial justice and police accountability issues.[200][201] For some, the so-called "George Floyd effect" had demonstrators and activists connecting historic racism and social injustice to contemporary, local examples of police brutality.[202] Movements spawned by Floyd's murder, which served as a catalyst,[201] were still active in Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, New Zealand, Nigeria, United Kingdom, and elsewhere by May 2021.[197] In Canada and France, where Floyd's murder initiated protests, activists were unsatisfied with the levels of reform made by officials at nearly a year after Floyd's murder.[203][204] Protesters in London rallied outside the United States embassy on May 22, 2021. Protesters remarked that the Chauvin murder conviction was "a small amount of justice of what [George Floyd] really deserves". The protest was among of new set of peaceful protests in the United Kingdom to mark the one-year anniversary of Floyd's murder.[205] On May 25, 2021, protesters took the streets in Germany[206] and demonstrators took a knee in and raised their fists at rallies in Glasgow, London, and Edinburgh.[158] Rallies were held outside U.S. Embassies in Greece and Spain.[207][208] Government response Further information: Reactions to the George Floyd protests United States Further information: 2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States and Protecting American Communities Task Force See also: George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2020 and BREATHE Act Map of US showing National Guard deployments at of June 16, 2020 States that activated the National Guard in response to the protests by June 16, 2020 At least 200 cities in the U.S. had imposed curfews by early June, while more than 30 states and Washington, D.C., activated over 96,000 National Guard and State Guard service members.[33][34][35][36] The deployment constituted the largest military operation other than war in U.S. history.[37] Minnesota National Guard in front of state capitol building in St. Paul on May 31 Police and protesters stand off in Seattle on May 30 Top: Minnesota National Guard behind police at the Minnesota State Capitol on May 31, 2020 Middle: National Guard snipers atop the North Carolina State Capitol building on June 1, 2020 Bottom: President Donald Trump walks to St. John's Church amid protests in Washington, D.C., on June 1, 2020 United States President Donald Trump demanded governors and city governments crackdown on protestors and controversially threatened to deploy the 82nd Airborne and 3rd Infantry Regiment in response to the unrest.[33] On May 29, Trump tweeted "when the looting starts, the shooting starts", which Twitter marked as "glorifying violence".[209][210] Trump later said he was not advocating violence, noting that the tweet could be read as either a threat or a statement of fact and that he intended for it to be read as "a combination of both".[211] On June 3, he said "If a city or state refuses to take the actions necessary to defend the life and property of their residents, then I will deploy the United States military and quickly solve the problem."[212] This would have required invoking the Insurrection Act of 1807,[212] last used to quell the 1992 Los Angeles riots on May 1, 1992, by Executive Order 12804. Arkansas senator Tom Cotton also pushed for the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division to be deployed to quell the unrest, calling protesters "Antifa terrorists".[213] Massachusetts Representative Seth Moulton said federal troops should "lay down [their] arms" if deployed in the United States.[214] On June 4, federal agencies added about 1.7 miles (2.7 km) of fencing around the White House, Lafayette Square, and The Ellipse.[215] Protesters used the fencing to post signs and artwork expressing their views.[216] On June 11, the fencing was taken down, and some signs were collected by Smithsonian Museum curators from the National Museum of African American History and Culture.[217] U.S. Customs and Border Protection, authorized to provide aerial surveillance "to assist law enforcement and humanitarian relief efforts" when requested, provided drone imagery during the protests.[218][219] As of June 5, 2020, 2,950 federal law enforcement personnel from a dozen agencies, including the Secret Service, Capital Police, Park Police, Customs and Border Protection, FBI's Hostage Rescue Team, Bureau of Prisons' Special Operations Response Team, DEA's Special Response Team, ATF, and Marshals Service's Special Operations Group, have been dispatched to assist local authorities, with most of them being garrisoned in D.C.[220][221][222][223] The DEA's legal authority was specifically expanded by the Department of Justice beyond usual limits to include surveillance of protesters and the ability to arrest for non-drug related offenses.[224] In response, Representatives Jerry Nadler and Karen Bass of the House Judiciary Committee denounced the move and requested a formal briefing from DEA Acting Administrator Timothy Shea.[225] From at least July 14, 2020, unidentified federal officers wearing camouflage used unmarked vans to detain protesters in Portland, Oregon—sometimes without explaining the reason for their arrest.[226][227][228][229][230][231] The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) called these actions unconstitutional kidnappings.[232] In The Nation, Jeet Heer also called the actions unconstitutional and wrote that "The deployment of unidentified federal officers is particularly dangerous in... Portland and elsewhere in America, because it could easily lead to right-wing militias' impersonating legal authorities and kidnapping citizens."[231] On July 20, 2020, the Chicago Tribune reported that the Department of Homeland Security was preparing to send 150 federal agents to Chicago.[233] On June 26, 2020, President Trump signed an executive order permitting federal agencies to provide personnel "to assist with the protection of Federal monuments, memorials, statues, or property".[234] Following the executive order, the Department of Homeland Security sent officers from Customs and Border Protection to Portland, Oregon, Seattle, and Washington, D.C. This was a departure from Homeland Security's normal role of protecting against threats from abroad.[235] Critics accused federal authorities of overstepping their jurisdiction and using excessive force against protesters.[235][236][237] Oregon governor Kate Brown called for federal agents to scale back their response and criticized Trump's actions: "President Trump deploying armed federal officers to Portland only serves to escalate tensions and, as we saw yesterday, will inevitably lead to unnecessary violence and confrontation."[237] Portland mayor Ted Wheeler demanded the agents be removed after citizens were detained far from the federal property agents were sent to protect.[238] In the wake of the George Floyd protests, Republicans in state legislatures nationwide pushed for legislation targeting protestors. The bills, which conflate peaceful protests, riots and looting, imposed harsher punishment on individuals found guilty of unlawful assembly and public disorder, as well as provided immunity for motorists that hit protestors.[239] The Florida anti-riot law was struck down as unconstitutional by a federal district judge, on the grounds of vagueness, freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, and due process. The law also made it a felony to destroy historically commemorative objects and structures, and in response to calls to "defund the police" requires police departments to justify budget reductions.[240] International In France, the government banned demonstrations near the United States Embassy and Eiffel Tower in Paris out of concern for potential violence.[241] Violence and controversies Main article: Violence and controversies during the George Floyd protests Further information: List of police violence incidents during George Floyd protests, List of vehicle-ramming incidents during George Floyd protests, and List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests By June 22, 2020, police had made 14,000 arrests in 49 cities since the protests began, with most arrests being locals charged with low-level offenses such as violating curfews or blocking roadways.[4] By June 8, 2020, at least 19 people had died during the protests.[242] Several protests over Floyd's murder, including one in Chicago,[243] turned into riots.[244] On May 29, 2020, civil rights leader Andrew Young stated that riots, violence, and looting "hurt the cause instead of helping it"[245] while George Floyd's family also denounced the violent protests.[246] A study conducted by the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project found that about 93% of 7,750 protests from May 26 through August 22 remained peaceful and nondestructive.[40] There have been numerous reports and videos of aggressive police actions using physical force including "batons, tear gas, pepper spray and rubber bullets on protesters, bystanders and journalists, often without warning or seemingly unprovoked".[247] These incidents have provoked "growing concern that aggressive law enforcement tactics intended to impose order were instead inflaming tensions".[247] The police responded that such tactics are necessary to prevent vandalism and arson, and that police officers themselves have been assaulted with thrown rocks and water bottles.[247] Amnesty International issued a press release on May 31, 2021, calling for the police to end excessive militarized responses to the protests.[248][249] A project by ProPublica compiled 68 videos during the George Floyd protests of police officers who used what appeared to researchers to be excessive levels of force. By a year later, police departments had disciplined 10 officers in connection to those captured on video.[250] At least 104 incidents of vehicles driving into crowds of protesters, including eight involving police officers, were recorded from May 27 to September 5, with 39 drivers charged. According to experts some incidents involved frightened drivers surrounded by protesters while other incidents involved angry drivers or were politically motivated.[251] Since 2015, such actions have been encouraged against Black Lives Matter protests by "Run Them Over" and "All Lives Splatter" memes online, as well as items posted on Fox News and on social media by police officers.[252][253] In Buffalo, three Buffalo Police Department officers were struck by a car, and in Minneapolis, a Minnesota National Guard soldier fired 3 rounds at a speeding vehicle that was driving towards police officers and soldiers.[254][255][256][257] There were allegations of foreign influence stoking the unrest online, with the role of outside powers being additive rather than decisive as of May 31.[258] Several analysts have said that there was a lack of evidence for foreign meddling – whether to spread disinformation or sow divisiveness – but suggest that the messaging and coverage from these countries has more to do with global politics.[259] Burning buildings in Saint Paul on May 29 Police and protesters stand off in Seattle on May 30 DC Riots May 30 From top: 1. Burning buildings amid riots in Saint Paul, Minnesota, on May 29 2. Police and protesters stand off in Seattle on May 30 3. Vehicles on fire during a riot in Washington, D.C., on May 30 4. Georgia National Guard and police clash with protesters in Atlanta in late May-early June 5. Protesters and counter-protesters faceoff in Columbus, Ohio, on July 18 Police attacks on journalists According to the U.S. Press Freedom Tracker, at least 100 journalists have been arrested while covering the protests, while 114 have been physically attacked by police officers.[260] Although some journalists have been attacked by protesters, over 80% of incidents involving violence against the news media were committed by law enforcement officers.[261] The Committee to Protect Journalists has accused police officers of intentionally targeting news crews in an attempt to intimidate them from covering the protests.[262] Some journalists covering the protests in Minneapolis had their tires slashed by Minnesota State Patrol troopers and Anoka County sheriff's deputies.[263] Injuries caused by police projectiles During the week of May 30, 2020, 12 people, including protesters, journalists and bystanders, were partially blinded after being struck with police projectiles.[264] By June 21, at least 20 people had suffered serious eye injuries.[265] The American Academy of Ophthalmology has called on police departments to stop using rubber bullets for crowd control, writing in a statement that "Americans have the right to speak and congregate publicly and should be able to exercise that right without the fear of blindness."[266] Extremist participation Further information: Violence and controversies during the George Floyd protests § Reports of extremist activities in the United States As unrest grew in the days after Floyd's murder, there was speculation by federal, state, and local officials that various extremist groups using the cover of the protests to foment general unrest in the United States. Officials initially provided few details to the public about the claims.[267] Donald Trump, FBI Director Christopher A. Wray,[268] New York City Mayor Bill de Blasio,[269] United States Attorney General William Barr, Atlanta Mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms,[270] Seattle Police Guild President Mike Solan,[271] and Huntsville Police Chief Mark McMurray[272] blamed anarchists and "far-left extremist" groups, including antifa, for inciting and organizing violent riots.[273][274][275] According to a Justice Department spokesperson, Barr came to this conclusion after being provided with information from state and local law enforcement agencies.[276] Contrastingly, several mid-June investigations by news agencies including The Washington Post and The Associated Press concluded there was no solid evidence of antifa involvement in causing violence during the protests, contradicting prior claims by law enforcement officials.[277][278][279] and the Trump administration provided no further evidence for its claims.[279] This is in part because "antifa is a moniker, not a single group", making it difficult to attribute any violence directly to the movement.[280] The majority of protests in the aftermath of Floyd's murder were peaceful;[281][282][283] among the 14,000 arrests made, most were for minor offenses such as alleged curfew violations or blocking a roadway.[4] An analysis of state and federal criminal charges of demonstrators in the Minneapolis area found that disorganized crowds had no single goal or affiliation, many opportunist crowds amassed spontaneously during periods of lawlessness, and that people causing destruction had contradictory motives for their actions.[284] Other analysis found that persons involved in visible crimes such as arson or property damage were not ideologically organized, although some were motivated by anger towards police.[4] Episodes of looting were committed by "regular criminal groups" and street gangs[285][278] and were motivated by personal gain rather than ideology.[4] A large number of white nationalists did not appear in response to the protests, although "a handful of apparent lone actors" were arrested for attempting to harm protesters.[4] However, there was a scattered number of armed paramilitary-style militia movement groups and there were "several cases where members of these groups discharged firearms, causing chaos or injuring protesters".[4] According to the Institute for Research and Education on Human Rights (IREHR), which mapped the appearance of various right-wing or far-right actors or extremist groups at rallies throughout the United States, there were 136 confirmed cases of right-wing participation at the protests by June 19, 2020, with many more unconfirmed. Boogaloo, Three Percenters, Oath Keepers, Proud Boys, neo-Confederates, white nationalists, and an assortment of militias and vigilante groups reportedly had a presence at some protests, mostly in small towns and rural areas.[4][286] Boogaloo groups, who are generally pro-gun, anti-government, and far-right accelerationists, have reportedly been present at least 40 George Floyd protests, several reportedly linked with violence.[4][287] Their continued presence online has caused Facebook and TikTok to take action against their violent and anti-government posts.[288][289] On July 25, 2020, 28-year old armed Black Lives Matter protester Garrett Foster was shot and killed in an altercation with a motorist in Downtown Austin. Foster identified with the boogaloo movement and had expressed anti-racist, libertarian, and anti-police views in his Facebook posts.[290] Police said initial reports indicate that Foster was carrying an AK-47 style rifle, and was pushing his fiancée's wheelchair moments before he was killed.[291][292] By late 2020, the United States Attorney's office had charged three alleged adherents of Boogaloo Bois movement who attempted to capitalize on the unrest in Minneapolis in late May.[293][294] Two had pled guilty by May 2021.[295] According to the federal charging documents, the 30-year-old Michael Robert Solomon of New Brighton, Minnesota, who pled guilty to federal charges, recruited Boogaloo adherent participation via Facebook and at least five others traveled to Minneapolis to participate in the unrest.[296][297] One of the persons, Benjamin Ryan Teeter, a 22-year old from Hampstead, North Carolina, also pled guilty to several federal criminal charges. Officials believed Teeter traveled to Minneapolis in the days after Floyd's murder to participate in rioting and looting and that he also had plans to destroy a courthouse with Solomon.[298] A 26-year-old man from Boerne, Texas, who self-identified as a local leader of the Boogaloo movement, also faced federal riot charges for allegedly shooting 13 rounds from an AK-47-style machine gun into the Minneapolis third police precinct building while people were inside, looting it, and helping to set it on fire the night of May 28, 2020.[93][299] Perception of pervasiveness of violence Further information: Mean world syndrome A December 2020 poll found 47% of Americans believed that the majority of the protests were violent, and 16% were unsure.[300] According to the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, an estimated 93%–96.3% of demonstrations were peaceful and nondestructive, involving no injuries or no property damage.[40][301][302] Police made arrests in about 5% of protest events (deploying chemical irritants in 2.5% of events); 3.7% of protest events were associated with property damage or vandalism (including damages by persons not involved in the actual demonstration); and protesters or bystanders were injured or killed in 1.6% of events.[301] Media coverage The protests were the subject of extensive media coverage, documentaries, and television specials. The documentary Say His Name: Five Days of George Floyd, released in February 2021, contained footage of protests and unrest in a neighborhood of Minneapolis in the five days that elapsed between Floyd's murder and the criminal charges being filed against Derek Chauvin.[303][304] In August 2020, the occupied protests at 38th Street and Chicago Avenue in Minneapolis was the subject of a multi-part PBS News Hour series, "George Floyd Square: The epicenter of a protest movement that's swept the world"[305] and in December 2020, it was the subject of a monthlong series by Minnesota Public Radio, "Making George Floyd's Square: Meet the people transforming 38th and Chicago".[306] Several documentaries and news specials were broadcast to coincide with first anniversary of Floyd's murder.[307] The ABC-produced After Floyd: The Year that Shook America examined the "generation-defining movement" of Floyd's death and Our America: A Year of Activism reflected on the year-long period of activism on social justice issues that followed. PBS-produced Race Matters: America After George Floyd reported on ongoing protests in communities over issues of police brutality a year after Floyd's death.[307] The Minneapolis-based Star Tribune newspaper received the 2021 Pulitzer Prize for the breaking news it reported of Floyd's murder and the resulting aftermath. Danielle Frazier, the then 17-year old who filmed Floyd's arrest and murder on her cellphone, received a Pulitzer special citation recognition in 2021 for her video.[308] Use of social media Protesters wearing masks marching down a Baltimore street on May 30 A George Floyd protest in Baltimore on May 30 The video recorded of Floyd's arrest and death by Darneil Frazier on her mobile phone quickly went viral after she posted to Facebook a few hours later in the early morning hours of May 26.[309] Public outrage over the contents of the video became an inflection point that sparked the largest civil-rights protests in U.S. history as Americans confronted topics of structural racism and police reform. Protests had continued for over a year after Floyd's murder.[310][311] Numerous individuals and celebrities used social media to document the protests, spread information, promote donation sites, and post memorials to George Floyd. Following Floyd's murder, a 15-year-old started a Change.org petition titled "Justice for George Floyd", demanding that all four police officers involved be charged.[312] The petition was both the largest and fastest-growing in the site's history,[312] reaching over 13 million signatures.[citation needed] During this time, multiple videos of the protests, looting, and riots were shared by journalists and protesters with many videos circulating widely on social media websites.[313] Documentation A remix of Childish Gambino's song "This is America" and Post Malone's "Congratulations" was used heavily by protesters sharing footage of protests and police action on TikTok.[314] Others used personal Twitter pages to post video documentation of the protests to highlight police and protesters actions, as well as points of the protests they felt would not be reported.[315] One example was a viral photo that appears to show white women protesters standing with their arms locked between Louisville Metro Police Officers and protesters, with the caption describing the image and "This is love. This is what you do with your privilege."[316] Viral images of officers "taking a knee" with protesters and engaging in joint displays against police brutality, highlighted by hashtags such as #WalkWithUs,[317] have circulated widely on social media.[318] These acts have been identified by some cultural critics as copaganda, or "feel-good images" to boost public relations.[319][320][321] Official social media accounts of police departments boosted positive images of collaboration.[320] In some cases, these displays of solidarity, such as police kneeling, have been recognized as occurring moments before police teargassed crowds or inflicted violence on them.[319][321] An article in The Fader characterized these acts as public relations tactics which were being undermined by police violence, "It feels like we go past the point of no return several times each day."[320] Activism See also: Internet activism Protesters in Miami on June 6 Protesters in Miami on June 6, 2020 American K-pop fan accounts hijacked right wing and pro-Trump hashtags on social media, flooding trending hashtags with images and videos of their favorite artists. Users attempting to look up the hashtags #WhiteLiesMatter, #WhiteoutWednesday and #BlueLivesMatter were met with messages and video clips of dancing idols.[322] After the Dallas Police Department asked Twitter users to submit videos of protesters' illegal activity to its iWatch Dallas app, submissions of K-pop videos led to the temporary removal of the app due to "technical difficulties".[323][324] On May 28, hacktivist group Anonymous released a video to Facebook and the Minneapolis Police Department entitled "Anonymous Message To The Minneapolis Police Department", in which they state that they are going to seek revenge on the Minneapolis Police Department, and "expose their crimes to the world".[325][326] According to Bloomberg, the video was initially posted on an unconfirmed Anonymous Facebook page.[327] 269 gigabytes of leaked internal law enforcement data spanning 10 years obtained by Anonymous were later published by the activist group Distributed Denial of Secrets on June 19 to coincide with Juneteenth. The leak consisted of over a million documents, in what investigative journalist and founder of the group—Emma Best—called "the largest published hack of American law enforcement agencies".[328] The leaked documents revealed that law enforcement agencies had been covertly monitoring protestors' private communication over social media, and that both federal and local law enforcement had been stoking fear among police officers, likely setting the stage for the escalation of violence against protestors by police.[329] Facebook's decision not to remove or label President Trump's tweet of "When the looting starts, the shooting starts" prompted complaints from Facebook employees that political figures were getting a special exemption from the site's content policies. Actions included internal petition, questioning the CEO at an employee town hall, some resignations,[330] and an employee walkout.[331] On June 3, as U.S. protests gained momentum, Twitter CEO Jack Dorsey tweeted a recommendation for users to download end-to-end encryption (E2EE) messaging app Signal.[332] On June 6, an estimated half million people joined protests in 550 places in the United States.[26] By June 11, The New York Times reported that protest organizers relied on the E2EE app "to devise action plans and develop strategies for handling possible arrests for several years" and that downloads had "skyrocketed" with increased awareness of police monitoring leading protesters to use the app to communicate among themselves.[333] During the first week of June, the encrypted messaging app was downloaded over five times more than it had been during the week prior to Floyd's murder. Citizen, a community safety app, also experienced a high spike in downloads.[333] Misinformation Official statements Minnesota Governor Tim Walz speculated that there was "an organized attempt to destabilize civil society", initially saying as many as 80% of the individuals had possibly come from outside the state,[334] and the mayor of St. Paul, Melvin Carter, said everyone arrested in St. Paul on May 29 was from out of state.[335] However, jail records showed that the majority of those arrested were in-state.[336] At a press conference later the same day, Carter explained that he had "shared... arrest data received in [his] morning police briefing which [he] later learned to be inaccurate".[337] Numerous eyewitness accounts and news reporters indicated that tear gas was used to disperse protesters in Lafayette Square.[338] Despite this evidence, U.S. Park Police officials said, "USPP officers and other assisting law enforcement partners did not use tear gas or OC Skat Shells to close the area at Lafayette Park",[339][340] adding that they only used "pepper balls" and "smoke canisters". Donald Trump's presidential campaign demanded news outlets retract reports of "tear gas" use.[341] President Trump called the reports "fake" and said "they didn't use tear gas."[342] Press statements On the night of May 31, exterior lights on the north side of the White House went dark as usual at 11:00 pm,[343] while protesters were demonstrating outside.[344] The Guardian mistakenly reported that "in normal times, they are only ever turned off when a president dies."[345] A 2015 stock photograph of the White House, edited to show the lights turned off, was shared tens of thousands of times online,[346] including by Hillary Clinton.[347] While the photograph did not depict the building at the time of the protests, Deputy White House Press Secretary Hogan Gidley confirmed that the lights "go out at about 11 p.m. almost every night".[344] Protesters in Eugene, Oregon, on June 9, 2020 On June 6, the New York Post reported that a NYPD source said $2.4 million of Rolex watches had been looted during protests from a Soho Rolex store.[348] However, the store in question was actually a Watches of Switzerland outlet that denied anything was stolen.[348] Rolex confirmed that "no watches of any kind were stolen, as there weren't any on display in the store."[349] A June 12 article by The Seattle Times found that Fox News published a photograph of the Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone that had been digitally altered to include a man armed with an assault rifle.[350] The Fox News website also used a photograph of a burning scene from the Minnesota protests to illustrate their articles on Seattle's protests. Fox removed the images and issued an apology, stating the digitally altered image was a collage that "did not clearly delineate" splicing.[350] Conspiracy theories Further information: Antifa (United States) § George Floyd protests (2020) False claims of impending antifa activity as part of the protests circulated through social media platforms, causing alarm in at least 41 towns and cities.[351][352][353] As a result of the rumors, several people were harassed.[352] Hundreds of members of armed self-proclaimed militias and far right groups gathered in Gettysburg National Military Park on Independence Day in response to a fake online claim that antifa protesters were planning on burning the U.S. flag.[354] Some social media users spread images of damage from other protests or incidents, falsely attributing the damage to the George Floyd protests.[355] Twitter suspended hundreds of accounts associated with spreading a false claim about a communications blackout during protests in Washington, D.C., or a claim that authorities had blocked protesters from communicating on their smartphones.[356] Also, some accounts shared a photo of a major fire burning near the Washington Monument, which was actually an image from a television show.[357][358] A study by Zignal Labs identified three dominant themes in misinformation and conspiracy theories around the protests: unsubstantiated claims of antifa involvement, claims that Floyd's murder had been faked, and claims of involvement by the billionaire investor and philanthropist George Soros.[359] Social impact Main article: List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests A protester in New York City holding a sign listing some demands A week into the protests, The Washington Post stated that the current situation suggests that the status quo was undergoing a shock, with the article stating "the past days have suggested that something is changing. The protests reached into every corner of the United States and touched nearly every strand of society."[360] Joe Biden told Politico that he had experienced an awakening and thought other White Americans had as well, saying: "Ordinary folks who don't think of themselves as having a prejudiced bone in their body, don't think of themselves as racists, have kind of had the mask pulled off."[361] Large amounts of journalistic and academic sources have viewed the protests as forcing Americans to face racial inequality, police brutuality and other racial and economic issues. Many have stated that the current unrest is due to the current political and cultural system of overlooking, ignoring and oppression of Black Americans, calling it a racial reckoning. Politico said the murder of George Floyd, captured on video, had "prompted a reckoning with racism [...] for a wide swath of white America."[361] Deva Woodly, Associate Professor of Politics at The New School for Social Research, wrote: "We are living in a world-historical moment."[362] NPR said that "a change of attitude seems to have swept through the national culture like a sudden wind."[363] CNN's Brianna Keilar said that "[y]ou are watching America's reckoning" as she outlined the "profound change" the country had experienced, including that in mid-June 15 of the 20 bestselling books were about race.[364] In late June, The Christian Science Monitor's editorial board wrote: "It may still be too soon to say the U.S. has reached a true inflection point in its treatment of its citizens of African descent. But it has certainly reached a reflection point."[365] Reuters reported that Black candidates in June's primaries had benefited from "a national reckoning on racism."[366] By early July, The Washington Post was running a regularly updated section titled "America's Racial Reckoning: What you need to know."[367] On July 3, The Washington Post said that "the Black Lives Matter protests following the police killings of Breonna Taylor, George Floyd and Rayshard Brooks focused the world's attention on racial inequities, structural racism and implicit bias."[368] The New York Times described the events in the wake of Floyd's murder and video that circulated of it as "the largest protests in the United States since the Civil Rights era."[115] According to the American Political Science Review, the George Floyd protests led to a reduction in favorability toward the police among politically liberal Americans, and further exacerbated racial and political tensions and attitudes regarding the "race and law enforcement" debate in the U.S.[369] Economic impact See also: 2020 Minneapolis park encampments and C-19 recession § Impact of U.S. protests Federal Reserve Chairman Jerome Powell noted on June 10 "historically high unemployment" prevalent during the prelude of the protests.[370] The Property Claim Services (PCS) of the U.S. Insurance industry states that in the "unrest that took place from May 26 to June 8" 2020 in 140 U.S. cities in 20 states was "the costliest civil unrest in U.S. history", and that insured losses are "estimated at over $2 billion".[371][372] According to Fortune, the economic impact of the protests has exacerbated the C-19 recession by sharply curtailing consumer confidence, straining local businesses, and overwhelming public infrastructure with large-scale property damage.[280] A number of small businesses, already suffering from the economic impact of the C-19 pandemic, were harmed by vandalism, property destruction, and looting.[373][374] Curfews instated by local governments – in response to both the pandemic and protests – have also "restricted access to the downtown [areas]" to essential workers, lowering economic output.[280] President Donald Trump, after announcing a drop in overall unemployment from 14.7% to 13.3% on June 5, stated that strong economic growth was "the greatest thing [for race relations]" and "George Floyd would have been proud [of the unemployment rate]".[375] That same day reports from the Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated the unemployment rate among African Americans (covering the first two weeks of protests) was up 0.1%, rising to 16.8%.[376] The U.S. stock market remained unaffected or otherwise increased from the start of the protests on May 26 to June 2.[377] The protest's first two weeks coincided with a 38% rise in the stock market.[378] A resurgence of C-19 (facilitated by mass protests) could exacerbate the 2020 stock market crash according to economists at RBC.[379] The protests have disrupted national supply chains over uncertainty regarding public safety, a resurgence of C-19, and consumer confidence. Several Fortune 500 retail companies, with large distribution networks, have scaled back deliveries and shuttered stores in high-impact areas.[280] Mass demonstrations – of both peaceful and violent varieties – have been linked to diminished consumer confidence and demand stemming from the public health risks of group gatherings amid C-19.[280] Aftermath of a looted Cub Foods supermarket in Minneapolis, May 28, 2020 Large-scale property damage stemming from the protests has led to increased insurance claims, bankruptcies, and curbed economic activity among small businesses and state governments. Insurance claims arising from property damage suffered in rioting is still being assessed, but is thought to be significant, perhaps record-breaking.[380] Estimates of property damages from fires and looting in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area were $550 million to 1,500 property locations.[5][101] Private insurance covered less than half of the estimated damages, which had a disproportionate effect on small business owners, many of who were immigrants and people of color.[5] Among the losses in Minneapolis was Minnehaha Commons, an under-construction, $30 million redevelopment project for 189 units of affordable housing, which was destroyed by fire after being torched on May 27, 2020.[381][382] A community organization in Atlanta's Buckhead neighborhood said that between $10 million and $15 million in property damage (excluding losses from looting) was incurred over the weekend of May 29–31, mostly along storefronts along Peachtree Street and Phipps Plaza.[383] The damage to downtown Chicago's central business district (near the Magnificent Mile) was reported to have sustained "millions of dollars in damage" according to Fortune.[280] Public financing and funding, particularly on the state level, has also been impacted by the protests. The C-19 recession has eroded large parts of state budgets which have, subsequently, struggled to finance the police overtime pay, security costs, and infrastructure repairs related to the demonstrations.[280] State governments have, since June, announced budget cuts to police departments as well as increased funding to other public safety measures. Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti announced on June 5 he will seek up to $150 million in cuts to the Los Angeles Police Department budget.[384] On May 31, Walmart temporarily closed several hundred of its stores as a precaution. Amazon announced it would redirect some delivery routes and scale back others as a result of the widespread unrest.[385] Monuments and symbols Main articles: List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests, List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests, and 2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States § Founding of PACT Vandalized monument of Confederate general Robert E. Lee in Richmond, Virginia, on July 1, 2020 A makeshift memorial emerged at the East 38th Street and Chicago Avenue intersection in Minneapolis where Floyd was murdered. Minneapolis officials renamed a stretch two block stretch of Chicago Avenue as George Floyd Perry Jr Place and designated it as one of seven cultural districts in city.[386][387][388] Scrutiny of, discussion of removal, and removal of civic symbols or names relating to the Confederate States of America (frequently associated with segregation and the Jim Crow era in the United States) has regained steam as protests have continued.[389] On June 4, 2020, Virginia governor Ralph Northam announced the Robert E. Lee Monument in Richmond would be removed.[390] On June 5, making specific reference to events in Charlottesville in 2017, the United States Marine Corps banned the display of the Confederate Battle Flag at their installations.[391][392] The United States Navy followed suit on June 9 at the direction of Michael M. Gilday, the Chief of Naval Operations.[393] Birmingham, Alabama, Mayor Randall Woodfin ordered the removal of the Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Monument in Linn Park. The Alabama Attorney General has filed suit against the city of Birmingham for violating the Alabama Memorial Preservation Act.[394] A statue of America's first president, George Washington, has been torn down and American flag was burned by rioters in Portland, Oregon.[395] Portland Public Schools was responding after protesters pulled down the Thomas Jefferson statue in front of Jefferson High School. Several protesters tore down the statue of the third President of the United States and wrote: "slave owner" and "George Floyd" in spray paint at its white marble base. PPS officials said they recognize that the act is part of a larger and very important national conversation.[396] The statues targeted included a bust of Ulysses S. Grant and statue of Theodore Roosevelt.[397][398] BLM activist Shaun King tweeted that statues, murals, and stained glass windows depicting a white Jesus should be removed.[399] Protesters defaced a statue of Philadelphia abolitionist Matthias Baldwin with the words "murderer" and "colonizer".[400] Protesters in San Francisco vandalized a statue of Miguel de Cervantes, a Spanish writer who spent five years as a slave in Algiers.[401] Vandals defaced the statue of Winston Churchill in London's Parliament Square and Queen Victoria's statue in Leeds.[402][403] The Lincoln Memorial, the World War II Memorial and the statue of General Casimir Pulaski were vandalized during the George Floyd protests in Washington, D.C.[404] On June 7, the statue of Edward Colston was toppled and thrown into Bristol Harbour by demonstrators during the George Floyd protests in the United Kingdom.[405] BLM activists in London are calling for the removal of 60 statues of historical figures like Prime Ministers Charles Grey and William Gladstone, Horatio Nelson, Sir Francis Drake, King Charles II of England, Oliver Cromwell and Christopher Columbus.[406] Protesters in Belgium have vandalized statues of King Leopold II of Belgium.[407] In Washington, D.C., a statue of Mahatma Gandhi in front of the Indian Embassy was vandalized on the intervening night of June 2 and 3. The incident prompted the embassy to register a complaint with law enforcement agencies. Taranjit Singh Sandhu, the Indian Ambassador to the United States, called the vandalism "a crime against humanity".[408][409][410] In London, another statue of Gandhi was vandalized by Black Lives Matter protesters along with the statue of Winston Churchill.[411] On June 12, the city council in Hamilton, New Zealand removed the statue of Captain John Hamilton, a British officer who was killed during the New Zealand Wars in 1864.[412] A local Māori elder Taitimu Maipi, who had vandalized the statue in 2018, has also called for the city to be renamed Kirikiriroa.[413] New Zealand Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters called the scrutiny of colonial-era memorials a "wave of idiocy".[414] The pedestal of a Christopher Columbus statue that was thrown into the Baltimore inner harbor on July 4, 2020 On June 22, a crowd of rioters unsuccessfully attempted to topple Clark Mills' 1852 bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson in Lafayette Square in President's Park, directly north of the White House in Washington, D.C.[415] Several days later, the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) charged four men with destruction of federal property for allegedly trying to bring down the statue. The Justice Department alleged that a video showed one of the men breaking off and destroying the wheels of the cannons located at the base of the statue as well as pulling on ropes when trying to bring down the statue.[416] Soon afterwards, the DOJ announced the arrest and charging of a man who was not only allegedly seen on video climbing up onto the Jackson statue and affixing a rope that was then used to try to pull the statue down, but had on June 20 helped destroy Gaetano Trentanove's 1901 Albert Pike Memorial statue near Washington's Judiciary Square by pulling it from its base and setting it on fire. The DOJ's complaint alleged that the man had been captured on video dousing the federally-owned Pike statue with a flammable liquid, igniting it as it lay on the ground and using the fire to light a cigarette.[417] On June 30, after the Mississippi Legislature obtained a two-thirds majority in both houses to suspend rules in order to pass a bill addressing the Confederate Battle Flag on the Mississippi state flag, Governor Tate Reeves signed a bill that relinquished the state flag, mandated its removal from public premises within 15 days, and established a commission to propose a new flag design that excluded the Confederate Battle Flag and included the motto "In God We Trust".[418][419][420][421] The flag contained the infamous Confederate symbol in the canton (upper left corner) of the flag, and was the last U.S. state flag to do so.[422][423][424] During a speech on July 3 at Mount Rushmore, U.S. president Donald Trump denounced the monument removals as part of a "left wing cultural revolution" to "overthrow the American revolution".[425] On July 13, the Washington Redskins announced that their name and logo would be retired upon completion of "a thorough review of the name" that was first announced on July 3.[426][427] A week-long tour began July 28 in which a hologram of Floyd was projected on a monument to be removed, thereby "replacing" the monument with Floyd. Richmond, Virginia, was the first stop.[428] In the response to the protests, Congress mandated the creation of a Commission on the Naming of Items of the Department of Defense that Commemorate the Confederate States of America or Any Person Who Served Voluntarily with the Confederate States of America in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021.[429] President Trump cited this provision in his veto of the NDAA,[430] resulting in the only veto override of his presidency.[431] Impact on police activity See also: Ferguson effect Police take a knee during protests in Philadelphia on June 2, 2020 According to Lt. Bob Kroll, the head of the Minneapolis police union, officers began retiring "en masse"[432] alongside morale being at an "all-time low".[432] Around 170 Atlanta police officers walked off of the job in mid-June following unresolved grievances in the Rayshard Brooks case.[433] The New York City Police Department reported a 411% increase in police retirement application in the first week of July.[434] As a result, the department has limited new retirement applications to 40 a day.[435][436] On July 11, at least 150 Minneapolis police officers reported nondescript injuries as well as symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, leading over half of them to leave their jobs with more likely to follow.[432] The Minneapolis police have denied there being any serious injuries inflicted on officers.[432] Changes to police policies Main article: List of police reforms related to the George Floyd protests In the wake of Floyd's killing, state and local governments evaluated their police department policies, and the response to protests, for themselves. For example, California Governor Gavin Newsom called for new police crowd control procedures for the state, and the banning of the police use of carotid chokeholds, which starve the brain of oxygen.[437] The Minneapolis police department banned police from using chokeholds;[438] Denver's police department also banned the use of chokeholds without exception, and also established new reporting requirements whenever a police officer holds a person at gunpoint.[439] In June 2020, Democrats in Congress introduced the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act of 2020, a police reform and accountability bill that contains measures to combat police misconduct, excessive force, and racial bias in policing. The impetus for the bill were the killings of Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and other African Americans at the hands of police.[44][440][441] It passed the House of Representatives one month after Floyd's killing, 236 to 181, with support from Democrats and three Republicans.[442] A Republican reform bill was blocked in the U.S. Senate by all but two Democrats; neither party negotiated the contents of the bill with the other.[442] Speaker Nancy Pelosi summarized Democratic opposition to the Senate bill: "it's not a question that it didn't go far enough; it didn't go anywhere".[443] "Defund the Police", a phrase popularized by BLM during the George Floyd protests On June 16, President Trump signed an executive order on police reform that incentivized departments to recruit from communities they patrol, encourage more limited use of deadly force, and prioritize using social workers and mental health professionals for nonviolent calls.[444] The order also created a national database of police officers with a history of using excessive force.[445] On September 10, Ted Wheeler, the mayor and police commissioner of Portland, Oregon, banned city police from using tear gas for riot control purposes, but reiterated that police would respond to violent protests forcefully. Portland had seen over one hundred consecutive days of protests since they began on May 28.[446] Push to abolish police Main article: Police abolition movement in Minneapolis Nine members of the Minneapolis City Council — a veto-proof majority — pledged on June 7 to dismantle the Minneapolis Police Department, despite opposition from Mayor Jacob Frey.[447][448] U.S. representative Ilhan Omar stated, "the Minneapolis Police Department has proven themselves beyond reform. It's time to disband them and reimagine public safety in Minneapolis."[449] Despite pledges by city council members to the end the Minneapolis Police Department, a proposed amendment to the Minneapolis city charter which was approved by the Minneapolis City Council on June 26 would only rename the police department and change its structure if approved by voters.[450] In August, the review of another proposal to dismantle the department was delayed by 90 days, meaning it wouldn't be voted on in the November ballot because it passed the statutory deadline of August 21.[451] The budget for the department was passed in December and the funding was reduced by $7.7 million.[452] Impact on television and films See also: List of changes made due to the George Floyd protests § Television and streaming In the media industry, the protests have spurred scrutiny for cop shows and led to the cancellation of popular television shows referred to by critics as copaganda.[453][454] With long-standing criticism that it presented an unbalanced view of law enforcement in favor of police, encouraged police to engage in more dramatic behavior for the camera, and degraded suspects who had not yet been convicted of any crime, the Paramount Network canceled the 33rd season of the TV show Cops and pulled it from broadcast.[455] The television network A&E canceled a similar show, Live PD, which was also found to have destroyed footage documenting the police killing of Javier Ambler in Austin, Texas, in 2019.[456] The streaming service HBO Max temporarily pulled the film Gone with the Wind until video that explains and condemns the film's racist depictions could be produced to accompany it.[457] In the United Kingdom, the BBC pulled the famed "The Germans" episode of Fawlty Towers from its UKTV streaming service, but later reinstated it after criticism from series star and co-writer John Cleese. He later criticized their use of the word "fury" to describe his comments.[458] This was later removed by the BBC.[459] The episode, which included racial slurs about the West Indies cricket team, now features a disclaimer at the beginning warning of "offensive content and language".[460][461][462] The BBC also removed the Little Britain series and its spinoff Come Fly with Me from the iPlayer and BritBox services as well as Netflix for its use of blackface.[463] The week of June 24, 2020, several animated series that had black, mixed or non-white characters voiced by white actors, including Big Mouth, Central Park, Family Guy and The Simpsons, announced those characters would be recast with people of color.[464][465][466][467] That same week, episodes of 30 Rock, The Office, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia,[citation needed] Community, The Golden Girls, and Peep Show that involved characters using blackface were either removed or edited from syndication and streaming services.[468][469][470][471] In light of the protests, Brooklyn Nine-Nine co-star Terry Crews said that the first four episodes of the show's eighth season had to be rewritten.[472] The Penny Dreadful: City of Angels episode "Sing, Sing, Sing", opens with an additional viewer discretion warning about its content, specifically the lynching of a character by members of the Los Angeles Police Department. The episode originally aired less than one month after Floyd's murder, and was the only episode to feature this additional warning.[473] Impact on brand marketing In reaction to the higher sensitivity by customers for racial issues in the aftermath of Floyd's murder, multiple companies decided to rebrand some products. The brands Aunt Jemima, Uncle Ben's, and Fair & Lovely made adaptations to eliminate racial stereotypes. In sports, the NFL football team in Washington, D.C., dropped the "Redskins" nickname and the MLB baseball team in Cleveland said it would discontinue the "Indians" nickname after the 2021 season and adopt the "Guardians" nickname.[474][475] In June 2020, Disney announced that their theme park attraction Splash Mountain, which had been themed to the 1946 film Song of the South, controversial for its depiction of African Americans, would be re-themed based on the 2009 film The Princess and the Frog, which had Disney's first depiction of a black princess.[476][477] Public art Artistic impressions of George Floyd's likeness became an icon of the protest movement that unfolded following his murder.[478] Paintings of Floyd appeared on exterior walls in many cities in the United States and around the world. A mapping project of protest art after Floyd's death had by May 19, 2021, documented 2,100 entries of George Floyd-related and anti-racism art around the world, though much of it was from the Minneapolis and Saint Paul area. Many works appeared on plywood that covered up boarded-up windows and doors as result of unrest.[479][480] C-19 pandemic Further information: C-19 pandemic § Transmission A protester in Vancouver, Canada, mentioning c-19 on their clothing The protests occurred during the global C-19 pandemic, leading officials and experts to express concerns that the demonstrations could lead to further spread of SARS-CoV-2.[481] The demonstrations thus sparked debate among commentators, political leaders, and health experts over cronavirus restrictions on gatherings.[482] In June 2020 the CDC released the "Considerations for Events and Gatherings" which assesses large gatherings where it is difficult for people to stay at least six feet apart, and where attendees travel from outside the local area as "highest risk".[483] Public health experts and mayors urged demonstrators to wear face coverings, follow physical separation (social distancing) practices, engage in proper hand hygiene, and seek out C-19 testing.[484][485] Subsequent studies and public health reports showed that the protests in 2020 did not drive an increase in C-19 transmission.[486][487][488] Epidemiologists and other researchers attributed this to the location of the demonstrations outdoors (where the virus is less likely to spread as compared to indoors);[486][488] because many protesters wore masks;[488] and because persons who demonstrated made up a small portion of the overall U.S. population (about 6% of adults).[489] Outdoor events were analyzed to have a substantially lower risk of spreading the virus than indoor ones,[490][491] and transient contact was considered less risky than extended close contact.[491] Some protesters that were arrested were detained in crowded, indoor environments and did not have protective masks, which prompted concern over potential jail-spread of SARS-CoV-2.[492] Some law enforcement personnel in New York City who responded to protests were criticized for failing to wear face masks.[493] An outbreak was detected among Houston, Texas, police department officers, but it was not clear if the officer's were exposed on or off of their police duty.[494] While many U.S. states experienced growth in new cases during the initial wave of protests, these upticks are thought to be attributed to reopenings of workplaces, bars, restaurants, and other businesses.[489] 2020–21 United States election protests 1965 Watts riots – A black motorist resisting arrest ignited days of widespread violence in a formerly segregated Los Angeles neighborhood. Long, hot summer of 1967 – Protests and riots in which the statement "When the looting starts, the shooting starts" was first coined by Miami police chief Walter E. Headley. 1968 Democratic National Convention protests – Protests against the Vietnam War that were later described as a "police riot". 1980 Miami riots – Protests after an unarmed black salesman was beaten to death by police officers in 1979 and the officers involved were acquitted in May 1980. 1992 Los Angeles riots – Protests after police officers involved in the beating of Rodney King, a black man, were acquitted by the court in April 1992. 2014 Ferguson unrest – The large-scale unrest after the fatal shooting of Michael Brown by police. 2015 Baltimore protests – Protests following the arrest and subsequent death of Freddie Gray. 2020 Kenosha protests – Protests after the shooting of Jacob Blake in Kenosha, Wisconsin 2021 Daunte Wright protests – Protests after the killing of Daunte Wright Class conflict List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States Mass racial violence in the United States Further reading Arrangement is chronological. Sprunt, Barbara (May 29, 2020). "The History Behind 'When The Looting Starts, The Shooting Starts'". NPR. Owen, Tess (May 29, 2020). "Far-Right Extremists Are Hoping to Turn the George Floyd Protests Into a New Civil War". Vice. Hartman, Sid (May 30, 2020). "Unrest in Minneapolis echoes summer of 1967". Star Tribune. "George Floyd Protesters in Multiple Cities Target Confederate Monuments". Time. Associated Press. May 31, 2020. Archived from the original on June 1, 2020. Retrieved June 2, 2020. Pellerin, Ananda (June 1, 2020). "The people creating art to remember George Floyd". CNN Style. Steinmetz, Katy (June 8, 2020). "'A War of Words.' Why Describing the George Floyd Protests as 'Riots' Is So Loaded". Time. Chayka, Kyle (June 9, 2020). "The Mimetic Power of D.C.'s Black Lives Matter Mural". The New Yorker. Rubin, Jennifer (June 12, 2020). "The massive scope of change following George Floyd's death". The Washington Post. Burch, Aurda D. S.; Cai, Weiyi; Gianordoli, Gabriel; McCarthy, Morrigan; Patel, Jugal K. (June 13, 2020). "How Black Lives Matter Reached Every Corner of America". The New York Times. Putnam, Lara; Pressman, Jeremy; Chenoweth, Erica (July 8, 2020). "Black Lives Matter beyond America's big cities". The Washington Post. Valentine, Randall; Valentine, Dawn; Valentine, Jimmie L. (November 23, 2020). "Relationship of George Floyd protests to increases in C-19 cases using event study methodology". Journal of Public Health. 42 (4): 696–697. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdaa127. ISSN 1741-3842. PMC 7454741. PMID 32756893. Kaske, Erika A.; Cramer, Samuel W.; Pena Pino, Isabela; Do, Truong H.; Ladd, Bryan M.; Sturtevant, Dylan T.; Ahmadi, Aliya; Taha, Birra; Freeman, David; Wu, Joel T.; Cunningham, Brooke A. (January 13, 2021). "Injuries from Less-Lethal Weapons during the George Floyd Protests in Minneapolis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 384 (8): 774–775. doi:10.1056/NEJMc2032052. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 33440082. External links George Floyd protest tag, U.S. Press Freedom Tracker Demonstrations & Political Violence In America: New Data For Summer 2020 // Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project Running list of hoaxes and misleading posts, BuzzFeed News vte Protests of the murder of George Floyd George Floyd memorialsDerek Chauvin trialtrial protests Locations (map) Minneapolis– Saint Paul AftermathArson damageGeorge Floyd Square occupied protestPolice abolition movement in Minneapolis2020–2022 local racial unrest Elsewhere in the U.S. AlabamaAlaskaArizonaArkansasCalifornia Los Angeles CountySan Diego CountySan Francisco Bay AreaColoradoConnecticutDelawareDistrict of ColumbiaFloridaGeorgia AtlantaHawaiiIdahoIllinois ChicagoIndianaIowaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaineMarylandMassachusettsMichiganMinnesotaMississippiMissouriMontanaNebraskaNevadaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNew York New York CityNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaOhio ColumbusOklahomaOregon PortlandPennsylvania PhiladelphiaPuerto RicoRhode IslandSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseeTexasUtahVermontVirginia RichmondWashington SeattleWest VirginiaWisconsinWyoming Outside the U.S. AustraliaBelgiumCanadaGermanyItalyNetherlandsNew ZealandUnited Kingdom Violence and controversies Notable incidents Police violence incidents Buffalo police shoving incidentVehicle-ramming incidentsDonald Trump photo op at St. John's ChurchSt. Louis gun-toting controversy Notable deaths David DornDavid McAteeJames ScurlockSean MonterrosaAaron Danielson and Michael Reinoehl Notable arrests Omar Jimenez Slogans "8:46""I can't breathe""When the looting starts, the shooting starts""Defund the police" Reactions (to the murder · to the protests) Law enforcement 2020 deployment of federal forces in the United States Operation LegendPolice reforms Social and cultural 8 to Abolition8:46Actions against memorials in Great Britain Commission for Diversity in the Public RealmGeorge Floyd SquareBlack Lives Matter PlazaBlack Lives Matter street muralsBlackout TuesdayCapitol Hill Occupied ProtestChanges made Monuments and memorials removedName changesLabor action Strike for Black Lives (general)Sports strikesStrike for Black Lives (academic) Proposed legislation BREATHE ActEnding Qualified Immunity ActGeorge Floyd Law Enforcement Trust and Integrity ActGeorge Floyd Justice in Policing Act Related 2020–2022 United States racial unrest Murder of Ahmaud ArberyKilling of Breonna Taylor Breonna Taylor protestsKilling of Rayshard BrooksShooting of Jacob Blake Kenosha unrest shootingKilling of Dijon KizzeeKilling of Daniel PrudeKilling of Alvin ColeKilling of Marcellis StinnetteKilling of Walter WallaceKilling of Andre HillKilling of Winston Boogie SmithList of other incidentsAnonymousBlack Lives MatterCampaign ZeroDarnella FrazierMinneapolis Police DepartmentWall of MomsMonument and memorial controversies in the United StatesMonuments and memorials in Canada removed in 2020–2022Police abolition movementPolice accountability Blue wall of silenceGypsy copsQualified immunityPolice brutality in the United States Use of torture by policeUse of deadly force by police Category vte Monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests United States Alabama Birmingham – Confederate Soldiers and Sailors Monument; Charles LinnHuntsville – Confederate Soldier Memorial ✻Mobile – Raphael Semmes Arkansas Bentonville – Confederate Monument ✻Little Rock – Company A, Capitol GuardsPine Bluff – Confederate Monument California Carmel-by-the-Sea – Junípero SerraChula Vista – Christopher ColumbusLos Angeles – Junípero SerraSacramento – Columbus' Last Appeal to Queen Isabella ✻; Junípero Serra; John SutterSan Francisco – Christopher Columbus; Ulysses S. 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died 1977) Signature Rosa Parks Signature.svg Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an American activist in the civil rights movement best known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery bus boycott. The United States Congress has honored her as "the first lady of civil rights" and "the mother of the freedom movement".[1] On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks rejected bus driver James F. Blake's order to vacate a row of four seats in the "colored" section in favor of a White passenger, once the "White" section was filled.[2] Parks was not the first person to resist bus segregation, but the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) believed that she was the best candidate for seeing through a court challenge after her arrest for civil disobedience in violating Alabama segregation laws, and she helped inspire the Black community to boycott the Montgomery buses for over a year. The case became bogged down in the state courts, but the federal Montgomery bus lawsuit Browder v. Gayle resulted in a November 1956 decision that bus segregation is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.[3][4] Parks's act of defiance and the Montgomery bus boycott became important symbols of the movement. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation, and organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon and Martin Luther King Jr. At the time, Parks was employed as a seamstress at a local department store and was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers' rights and racial equality. Although widely honored in later years, she also suffered for her act; she was fired from her job, and received death threats for years afterwards.[5] Shortly after the boycott, she moved to Detroit, where she briefly found similar work. From 1965 to 1988, she served as secretary and receptionist to John Conyers, an African-American US Representative. She was also active in the Black Power movement and the support of political prisoners in the US. After retirement, Parks wrote her autobiography and continued to insist that there was more work to be done in the struggle for justice.[6] Parks received national recognition, including the NAACP's 1979 Spingarn Medal, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal, and a posthumous statue in the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda. California and Missouri commemorate Rosa Parks Day on her birthday, February 4, while Ohio, Oregon, and Texas commemorate the anniversary of her arrest, December 1.[7] Early life Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913, to Leona (née Edwards), a teacher, and James McCauley, a carpenter. In addition to African ancestry, one of Parks's great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish and one of her great-grandmothers a part-Native American slave.[8][9][10][11] She was small as a child and suffered poor health with chronic tonsillitis. When her parents separated, she moved with her mother to Pine Level, just outside the state capital, Montgomery. She grew up on a farm with her maternal grandparents, mother, and younger brother Sylvester. They all were members of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), a century-old independent Black denomination founded by free Blacks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the early nineteenth century. McCauley attended rural schools[12] until the age of eleven. Before that, her mother taught her "a good deal about sewing". She started piecing quilts from around the age of six, as her mother and grandmother were making quilts, She put her first quilt together by herself around the age of ten, which was unusual, as quilting was mainly a family activity performed when there was no field work or chores to be done. She learned more sewing in school from the age of eleven; she sewed her own "first dress [she] could wear".[13] As a student at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, she took academic and vocational courses. Parks went on to a laboratory school set up by the Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes for secondary education, but dropped out in order to care for her grandmother and later her mother, after they became ill.[14] Around the turn of the 20th century, the former Confederate states had adopted new constitutions and electoral laws that effectively disenfranchised Black voters and, in Alabama, many poor White voters as well. Under the White-established Jim Crow laws, passed after Democrats regained control of southern legislatures, racial segregation was imposed in public facilities and retail stores in the South, including public transportation. Bus and train companies enforced seating policies with separate sections for Blacks and Whites. School bus transportation was unavailable in any form for Black schoolchildren in the South, and Black education was always underfunded. Parks recalled going to elementary school in Pine Level, where school buses took White students to their new school and Black students had to walk to theirs: I'd see the bus pass every day ... But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The bus was among the first ways I realized there was a Black world and a White world.[15] Although Parks's autobiography recounts early memories of the kindness of White strangers, she could not ignore the racism of her society. When the Ku Klux Klan marched down the street in front of their house, Parks recalls her grandfather guarding the front door with a shotgun.[16] The Montgomery Industrial School, founded and staffed by White northerners for Black children, was burned twice by arsonists. Its faculty was ostracized by the White community. Repeatedly bullied by White children in her neighborhood, Parks often fought back physically. She later said: "As far back as I remember, I could never think in terms of accepting physical abuse without some form of retaliation if possible."[17]: 208 Early activism In 1932, Rosa married Raymond Parks, a barber from Montgomery.[17]: 13, 15 [18] He was a member of the NAACP,[18] which at the time was collecting money to support the defense of the Scottsboro Boys, a group of Black men falsely accused of raping two White women.[19]: 690 Rosa took numerous jobs, ranging from domestic worker to hospital aide. At her husband's urging, she finished her high school studies in 1933, at a time when fewer than 7% of African Americans had a high-school diploma. In December 1943, Parks became active in the civil rights movement, joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, and was elected secretary at a time when this was considered a woman's job. She later said, "I was the only woman there, and they needed a secretary, and I was too timid to say no."[20] She continued as secretary until 1957. She worked for the local NAACP leader Edgar Nixon, even though he maintained that "Women don't need to be nowhere but in the kitchen."[21] When Parks asked, "Well, what about me?", he replied: "I need a secretary and you are a good one."[21] In 1944, in her capacity as secretary, she investigated the gang-rape of Recy Taylor, a Black woman from Abbeville, Alabama. Parks and other civil rights activists organized "The Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor", launching what the Chicago Defender called "the strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade".[22] Parks continued her work as an anti-rape activist five years later when she helped organize protests in support of Gertrude Perkins, a Black woman who was raped by two White Montgomery police officers.[23] Although never a member of the Communist Party, she attended meetings with her husband. The notorious Scottsboro case had been brought to prominence by the Communist Party.[24] In the 1940s, Parks and her husband were members of the League of Women Voters. Sometime soon after 1944, she held a brief job at Maxwell Air Force Base, which, despite its location in Montgomery, Alabama, did not permit racial segregation because it was federal property. She rode on its integrated trolley. Speaking to her biographer, Parks noted, "You might just say Maxwell opened my eyes up." Parks worked as a housekeeper and seamstress for Clifford and Virginia Durr, a White couple. Politically liberal, the Durrs became her friends. They encouraged—and eventually helped sponsor—Parks in the summer of 1955 to attend the Highlander Folk School, an education center for activism in workers' rights and racial equality in Monteagle, Tennessee. There Parks was mentored by the veteran organizer Septima Clark.[17] In 1945, despite the Jim Crow laws and discrimination by registrars, she succeeded in registering to vote on her third try.[19]: 690 In August 1955, Black teenager Emmett Till was brutally murdered after reportedly flirting with a young White woman while visiting relatives in Mississippi.[25] On November 27, 1955, four days before she would make her stand on the bus, Rosa Parks attended a mass meeting at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery that addressed this case, as well as the recent murders of the activists George W. Lee and Lamar Smith. The featured speaker was T. R. M. Howard, a Black civil rights leader from Mississippi who headed the Regional Council of Negro Leadership.[26] Howard brought news of the recent acquittal of the two men who had murdered Till. Parks was deeply saddened and angry at the news, particularly because Till's case had garnered much more attention than any of the cases she and the Montgomery NAACP had worked on—and yet, the two men still walked free.[27] Parks arrest and bus boycott Seat layout on the bus where Parks sat, December 1, 1955 Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs In 1900, Montgomery had passed a city ordinance to segregate bus passengers by race. Conductors were empowered to assign seats to achieve that goal. According to the law, no passenger would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. Over time and by custom, however, Montgomery bus drivers adopted the practice of requiring Black riders to move when there were no White-only seats left.[28] The first four rows of seats on each Montgomery bus were reserved for Whites. Buses had "colored" sections for Black people generally in the rear of the bus, although Blacks composed more than 75% of the ridership. The sections were not fixed but were determined by placement of a movable sign. Black people could sit in the middle rows until the White section filled; if more Whites needed seats, blacks were to move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if there was no room, leave the bus. Black people could not sit across the aisle in the same row as White people. The driver could move the "colored" section sign, or remove it altogether. If White people were already sitting in the front, Black people had to board at the front to pay the fare, then disembark and reenter through the rear door.[29] For years, the Black community had complained that the situation was unfair. Parks said, "My resisting being mistreated on the bus did not begin with that particular arrest. I did a lot of walking in Montgomery."[12] One day in 1943, Parks boarded a bus and paid the fare. She then moved to a seat, but driver James F. Blake told her to follow city rules and enter the bus again from the back door. When Parks exited the vehicle, Blake drove off without her.[30] Parks waited for the next bus, determined never to ride with Blake again.[31] Refusal to move Rosa Parks's arrest Booking photo of Parks following her February 1956 arrest during the Montgomery bus boycott Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 1 Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 2 Fingerprint card of Parks from her arrest on December 1, 1955 Parks being fingerprinted by Lieutenant D.H. Lackey on February 22, 1956, when she was arrested again, along with 73 other people, after a grand jury indicted 113 African Americans for organizing the Montgomery bus boycott.[32][33] After working all day, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus, a General Motors Old Look bus belonging to the Montgomery City Lines,[34] around 6 p.m., Thursday, December 1, 1955, in downtown Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat in the first row of back seats reserved for Blacks in the "colored" section. Near the middle of the bus, her row was directly behind the ten seats reserved for White passengers. Initially, she did not notice that the bus driver was the same man, James F. Blake, who had left her in the rain in 1943. As the bus traveled along its regular route, all of the White-only seats in the bus filled up. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire Theater, and several White passengers boarded. Blake noted that two or three White passengers were standing, as the front of the bus had filled to capacity. He moved the "colored" section sign behind Parks and demanded that four Black people give up their seats in the middle section so that the White passengers could sit. Years later, in recalling the events of the day, Parks said, "When that White driver stepped back toward us, when he waved his hand and ordered us up and out of our seats, I felt a determination cover my body like a quilt on a winter night."[35] By Parks's account, Blake said, "Y'all better make it light on yourselves and let me have those seats."[36] Three of them complied. Parks said, "The driver wanted us to stand up, the four of us. We didn't move at the beginning, but he says, 'Let me have these seats.' And the other three people moved, but I didn't."[37] The Black man sitting next to her gave up his seat.[38] Parks moved, but toward the window seat; she did not get up to move to the redesignated colored section.[38] Parks later said about being asked to move to the rear of the bus, "I thought of Emmett Till – a 14-year-old African American who was lynched in Mississippi in 1955, after being accused of offending a White woman in her family's grocery store, whose killers were tried and acquitted – and I just couldn't go back."[39] Blake said, "Why don't you stand up?" Parks responded, "I don't think I should have to stand up." Blake called the police to arrest Parks. When recalling the incident for Eyes on the Prize, a 1987 public television series on the Civil Rights Movement, Parks said, "When he saw me still sitting, he asked if I was going to stand up, and I said, 'No, I'm not.' And he said, 'Well, if you don't stand up, I'm going to have to call the police and have you arrested.' I said, 'You may do that.'"[40] During a 1956 radio interview with Sydney Rogers in West Oakland several months after her arrest, Parks said she had decided, "I would have to know for once and for all what rights I had as a human being and a citizen."[41] In her autobiography, My Story, she said: People always say that I didn't give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn't true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.[42] When Parks refused to give up her seat, a police officer arrested her. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, "Why do you push us around?" She remembered him saying, "I don't know, but the law's the law, and you're under arrest."[43] She later said, "I only knew that, as I was being arrested, that it was the very last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this kind. ... "[37] Parks was charged with a violation of Chapter 6, Section 11, segregation law of the Montgomery City code,[44] although technically she had not taken a White-only seat; she had been in a colored section.[45] Edgar Nixon, president of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and leader of the Pullman Porters Union, and her friend Clifford Durr bailed Parks out of jail that evening.[46][47] Parks did not originate the idea of protesting segregation with a bus sit-in. Those preceding her included Bayard Rustin in 1942,[48] Irene Morgan in 1946, Lillie Mae Bradford in 1951,[49] Sarah Louise Keys in 1952, and the members of the ultimately successful Browder v. Gayle 1956 lawsuit (Claudette Colvin, Aurelia Browder, Susie McDonald, and Mary Louise Smith) who were arrested in Montgomery for not giving up their bus seats months before Parks. Montgomery bus boycott Main article: Montgomery bus boycott Nixon conferred with Jo Ann Robinson, an Alabama State College professor and member of the Women's Political Council (WPC), about the Parks case. Robinson believed it important to seize the opportunity and stayed up all night mimeographing over 35,000 handbills announcing a bus boycott. The Women's Political Council was the first group to officially endorse the boycott. On Sunday, December 4, 1955, plans for the Montgomery bus boycott were announced at Black churches in the area, and a front-page article in the Montgomery Advertiser helped spread the word. At a church rally that night, those attending agreed unanimously to continue the boycott until they were treated with the level of courtesy they expected, until Black drivers were hired, and until seating in the middle of the bus was handled on a first-come basis. The next day, Parks was tried on charges of disorderly conduct and violating a local ordinance. The trial lasted 30 minutes. After being found guilty and fined $10, plus $4 in court costs (combined total equivalent to $142 in 2021),[37] Parks appealed her conviction and formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. In a 1992 interview with National Public Radio's Lynn Neary, Parks recalled: I did not want to be mistreated, I did not want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid for. It was just time ... there was opportunity for me to take a stand to express the way I felt about being treated in that manner.[50] I had not planned to get arrested. I had plenty to do without having to end up in jail. But when I had to face that decision, I didn't hesitate to do so because I felt that we had endured that too long. The more we gave in, the more we complied with that kind of treatment, the more oppressive it became.[51] On the day of Parks's trial—December 5, 1955—the WPC distributed the 35,000 leaflets. The handbill read, We are ... asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial ... You can afford to stay out of school for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off the buses Monday.[52] It rained that day, but the Black community persevered in their boycott. Some rode in carpools, while others traveled in Black-operated cabs that charged the same fare as the bus, 10 cents (equivalent to $1.01 in 2021). Most of the remainder of the 40,000 Black commuters walked, some as far as 20 miles (30 km). That evening after the success of the one-day boycott, a group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the Mt. Zion AME Zion Church to discuss boycott strategies. At that time, Parks was introduced but not asked to speak, despite a standing ovation and calls from the crowd for her to speak; when she asked if she should say something, the reply was, "Why, you've said enough."[53] This movement also sparked riots leading up to the 1956 Sugar Bowl.[54] The group agreed that a new organization was needed to lead the boycott effort if it were to continue. Rev. Ralph Abernathy suggested the name "Montgomery Improvement Association" (MIA).[55]: 432 The name was adopted, and the MIA was formed. Its members elected as their president Martin Luther King Jr., a relative newcomer to Montgomery, who was a young and mostly unknown minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church.[56] That Monday night, 50 leaders of the African-American community gathered to discuss actions to respond to Parks's arrest. Edgar Nixon, the president of the NAACP, said, "My God, look what segregation has put in my hands!"[57] Parks was considered the ideal plaintiff for a test case against city and state segregation laws, as she was seen as a responsible, mature woman with a good reputation. She was securely married and employed, was regarded as possessing a quiet and dignified demeanor, and was politically savvy. King said that Parks was regarded as "one of the finest citizens of Montgomery—not one of the finest Negro citizens, but one of the finest citizens of Montgomery".[12] Parks's court case was being slowed down in appeals through the Alabama courts on their way to a Federal appeal and the process could have taken years.[58] Holding together a boycott for that length of time would have been a great strain. In the end, Black residents of Montgomery continued the boycott for 381 days. Dozens of public buses stood idle for months, severely damaging the bus transit company's finances, until the city repealed its law requiring segregation on public buses following the US Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that it was unconstitutional. Parks was not included as a plaintiff in the Browder decision because the attorney Fred Gray concluded the courts would perceive they were attempting to circumvent her prosecution on her charges working their way through the Alabama state court system.[59] Parks played an important part in raising international awareness of the plight of African Americans and the civil rights struggle. King wrote in his 1958 book Stride Toward Freedom that Parks's arrest was the catalyst rather than the cause of the protest: "The cause lay deep in the record of similar injustices."[55]: 437 He wrote, "Actually, no one can understand the action of Mrs. Parks unless he realizes that eventually the cup of endurance runs over, and the human personality cries out, 'I can take it no longer.'"[55]: 424 Detroit years 1960s Parks on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day Montgomery's public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a UPI reporter covering the event. After her arrest, Parks became an icon of the Civil Rights Movement but suffered hardships as a result. Due to economic sanctions used against activists, she lost her job at the department store. Her husband lost his job as a barber at Maxwell Air Force Base[60] after his boss forbade him to talk about his wife or the legal case.[61] Parks traveled and spoke about the issues. In 1957, Raymond and Rosa Parks left Montgomery for Hampton, Virginia; mostly because she was unable to find work. She also disagreed with King and other leaders of Montgomery's struggling civil rights movement about how to proceed, and was constantly receiving death threats.[17] In Hampton, she found a job as a hostess in an inn at Hampton Institute, a historically Black college. Later that year, at the urging of her brother and sister-in-law in Detroit, Sylvester and Daisy McCauley, Rosa and Raymond Parks and her mother moved north to join them. The City of Detroit attempted to cultivate a progressive reputation, but Parks encountered numerous signs of discrimination against African-Americans. Schools were effectively segregated, and services in Black neighborhoods substandard. In 1964, Parks told an interviewer that, "I don't feel a great deal of difference here ... Housing segregation is just as bad, and it seems more noticeable in the larger cities." She regularly participated in the movement for open and fair housing.[62] Parks rendered crucial assistance in the first campaign for Congress by John Conyers. She persuaded Martin Luther King (who was generally reluctant to endorse local candidates) to appear with Conyers, thereby boosting the novice candidate's profile.[62] When Conyers was elected, he hired her as a secretary and receptionist for his congressional office in Detroit. She held this position until she retired in 1988.[12] In a telephone interview with CNN on October 24, 2005, Conyers recalled, "You treated her with deference because she was so quiet, so serene—just a very special person ... There was only one Rosa Parks."[63] Doing much of the daily constituent work for Conyers, Parks often focused on socio-economic issues including welfare, education, job discrimination, and affordable housing. She visited schools, hospitals, senior citizen facilities, and other community meetings and kept Conyers grounded in community concerns and activism.[62] Parks participated in activism nationally during the mid-1960s, traveling to support the Selma-to-Montgomery Marches, the Freedom Now Party,[17] and the Lowndes County Freedom Organization. She also befriended Malcolm X, who she regarded as a personal hero.[64] Like many Detroit Blacks, Parks remained particularly concerned about housing issues. She herself lived in a neighborhood, Virginia Park, which had been compromised by highway construction and urban renewal. By 1962, these policies had destroyed 10,000 structures in Detroit, displacing 43,096 people, 70 percent of them African-American. Parks lived just a mile from the center of the riot that took place in Detroit in 1967, and she considered housing discrimination a major factor that provoked the disorder.[62] In the aftermath Parks collaborated with members of the League of Revolutionary Black Workers and the Republic of New Afrika in raising awareness of police abuse during the conflict. She served on a "people's tribunal" on August 30, 1967, investigating the killing of three young men by police during the 1967 Detroit uprising, in what came to be known as the Algiers Motel incident.[65] She also helped form the Virginia Park district council to help rebuild the area. The council facilitated the building of the only Black-owned shopping center in the country.[62] Parks took part in the Black power movement, attending the Philadelphia Black Power conference, and the Black Political Convention in Gary, Indiana. She also supported and visited the Black Panther school in Oakland.[66][67][68] 1970s Rosa Parks c. 1978 In the 1970s, Parks organized for the freedom of political prisoners in the United States, particularly cases involving issues of self-defense. She helped found the Detroit chapter of the Joann Little Defense Committee, and also worked in support of the Wilmington 10, the RNA 11, and Gary Tyler.[69] Following national outcry around her case, Little succeeded in her defense that she used deadly force to resist sexual assault and was acquitted.[61] Gary Tyler was finally released in April 2016 after 41 years in prison.[70] The 1970s were a decade of loss for Parks in her personal life. Her family was plagued with illness; she and her husband had suffered stomach ulcers for years and both required hospitalization. In spite of her fame and constant speaking engagements, Parks was not a wealthy woman. She donated most of the money from speaking to civil rights causes, and lived on her staff salary and her husband's pension. Medical bills and time missed from work caused financial strain that required her to accept assistance from church groups and admirers. Her husband died of throat cancer on August 19, 1977, and her brother, her only sibling, died of cancer that November. Her personal ordeals caused her to become removed from the civil rights movement. She learned from a newspaper of the death of Fannie Lou Hamer, once a close friend. Parks suffered two broken bones in a fall on an icy sidewalk, an injury which caused considerable and recurring pain. She decided to move with her mother into an apartment for senior citizens. There she nursed her mother Leona through the final stages of cancer and geriatric dementia until she died in 1979 at the age of 92. 1980s In 1980, Parks—widowed and without immediate family—rededicated herself to civil rights and educational organizations. She co-founded the Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation for college-bound high school seniors,[71][72] to which she donated most of her speaker fees. In February 1987, she co-founded, with Elaine Eason Steele, the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, an institute that runs the "Pathways to Freedom" bus tours which introduce young people to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites throughout the country. Parks also served on the Board of Advocates of Planned Parenthood.[73][74][75] Though her health declined as she entered her seventies, Parks continued to make many appearances and devoted considerable energy to these causes. Unrelated to her activism, Parks loaned quilts of her own making to an exhibit at Michigan State University of quilts by African-American residents of Michigan.[13] 1990s Parks in 1993 In 1992, Parks published Rosa Parks: My Story, an autobiography aimed at younger readers, which recounts her life leading to her decision to keep her seat on the bus. A few years later, she published Quiet Strength (1995), her memoir, which focuses on her faith. At age 81, Parks was robbed and assaulted in her home in central Detroit on August 30, 1994. The assailant, Joseph Skipper, broke down the door but claimed he had chased away an intruder. He requested a reward and when Parks paid him, he demanded more. Parks refused and he attacked her. Hurt and badly shaken, Parks called a friend, who called the police. A neighborhood manhunt led to Skipper's capture and reported beating. Parks was treated at Detroit Receiving Hospital for facial injuries and swelling on the right side of her face. Parks said about the attack on her by the African-American man, "Many gains have been made ... But as you can see, at this time we still have a long way to go." Skipper was sentenced to 8 to 15 years and was transferred to prison in another state for his own safety.[76][77][78][79] Suffering anxiety upon returning to her small central Detroit house following the ordeal, Parks moved into Riverfront Towers, a secure high-rise apartment building. Learning of Parks's move, Little Caesars owner Mike Ilitch offered to pay for her housing expenses for as long as necessary.[80] In 1994, the Ku Klux Klan applied to sponsor a portion of United States Interstate 55 in St. Louis County and Jefferson County, Missouri, near St. Louis, for cleanup (which allowed them to have signs stating that this section of highway was maintained by the organization). Since the state could not refuse the KKK's sponsorship, the Missouri legislature voted to name the highway section the "Rosa Parks Highway". When asked how she felt about this honor, she is reported to have commented, "It is always nice to be thought of."[81][82] In 1999, Parks filmed a cameo appearance for the television series Touched by an Angel.[83] It was her last appearance on film; Parks began to suffer from health problems due to old age. 2000s In 2002, Parks received an eviction notice from her $1,800 per month (equivalent to $2,700 in 2021) apartment for non-payment of rent. Parks was incapable of managing her own financial affairs by this time due to age-related physical and mental decline. Her rent was paid from a collection taken by Hartford Memorial Baptist Church in Detroit. When her rent became delinquent and her impending eviction was highly publicized in 2004, executives of the ownership company announced they had forgiven the back rent and would allow Parks, by then 91 and in extremely poor health, to live rent-free in the building for the remainder of her life. Elaine Steele, manager of the nonprofit Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute, defended Parks's care and stated that the eviction notices were sent in error.[84] Several of Parks's family members alleged that her financial affairs had been mismanaged.[85] In 2016, Parks's former residence in Detroit was threatened with demolition. A Berlin-based American artist, Ryan Mendoza, arranged to have the house disassembled, moved to his garden in Germany, and partly restored. It served as a museum honoring Rosa Parks.[86] In 2018, the house was moved back to the United States. Brown University was planning to exhibit the house, but the display was cancelled.[87] The house was exhibited during part of 2018 in an arts centre in Providence, Rhode Island.[88] Death and funeral Parks died of natural causes on October 24, 2005, at the age of 92, in her apartment on the east side of Detroit. She and her husband never had children and she outlived her only sibling. She was survived by her sister-in-law (Raymond's sister), 13 nieces and nephews and their families, and several cousins, most of them residents of Michigan or Alabama. City officials in Montgomery and Detroit announced on October 27, 2005, that the front seats of their city buses would be reserved with black ribbons in honor of Parks until her funeral. Parks' coffin was flown to Montgomery and taken in a horse-drawn hearse to the St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church, where she lay in repose at the altar on October 29, 2005, dressed in the uniform of a church deaconess. A memorial service was held there the following morning. One of the speakers, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, said that if it had not been for Parks, she would probably have never become the Secretary of State. In the evening the casket was transported to Washington, D.C. and transported by a bus similar to the one in which she made her protest, to lie in honor in the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. The casket of Rosa Parks at the U.S. Capitol rotunda Since the founding of the practice in 1852, Parks was the 31st person, the first American who had not been a U.S. government official, and the second private person (after the French planner Pierre L'Enfant) to be honored in this way. She was the first woman and the second Black person to lie in honor in the Capitol.[89][90] An estimated 50,000 people viewed the casket there, and the event was broadcast on television on October 31, 2005. A memorial service was held that afternoon at Metropolitan AME Church in Washington, D.C.[91] With her body and casket returned to Detroit, for two days, Parks lay in repose at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History. Her funeral service was seven hours long and was held on November 2, 2005, at the Greater Grace Temple Church in Detroit. After the service, an honor guard from the Michigan National Guard laid the U.S. flag over the casket and carried it to a horse-drawn hearse, which was intended to carry it, in daylight, to the cemetery. As the hearse passed the thousands of people who were viewing the procession, many clapped, cheered loudly and released White balloons. Parks was interred between her husband and mother at Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery in the chapel's mausoleum. The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel in her honor.[92] Legacy and honors Rosa Parks statue by Eugene Daub (2013), in National Statuary Hall, United States Capitol 1963: Paul Stephenson initiated a bus boycott in Bristol, England, to protest a similar color bar operated by a bus company there, inspired by the example of the Montgomery bus boycott initiated by Rosa Parks's refusal to move from "Whites only" bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama.[93][94] 1976: Detroit renamed 12th Street "Rosa Parks Boulevard".[95] 1979: The NAACP awarded Parks the Spingarn Medal,[96] its highest honor,[97] 1980: She received the Martin Luther King Jr. Award.[98] 1982: California State University, Fresno, awarded Parks the African-American Achievement Award. The honor, given to deserving students in succeeding years, became the Rosa Parks Awards.[99][100] 1983: She was inducted into Michigan Women's Hall of Fame for her achievements in civil rights.[101] 1984: She received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women.[102] 1990: Parks was invited to be part of the group welcoming Nelson Mandela upon his release from prison in South Africa.[103] Parks was in attendance as part of Interstate 475 outside of Toledo, Ohio, was named after her.[104] 1992: She received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award along with Dr. Benjamin Spock and others at the Kennedy Library and Museum in Boston, Massachusetts.[105] 1993: She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame,[106] 1994: She received an honorary doctorate from Florida State University in Tallahassee, FL.[107] 1994: She received an honorary doctorate from Soka University in Tokyo, Japan.[108][109] 1995: She received the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award in Williamsburg, Virginia.[110] 1996: She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given by the US executive branch. 1998: She was the first-ever recipient of the International Freedom Conductor Award from the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, honoring people whose actions support those struggling with modern-day issues related to freedom.[111][112] 1999: She received the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given by the US legislative branch, the medal bears the legend "Mother of the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement" She received the Windsor–Detroit International Freedom Festival Freedom Award.[citation needed] Time named Parks one of the 20 most influential and iconic figures of the 20th century.[52] President Bill Clinton honored her in his State of the Union address, saying, "She's sitting down with the first lady tonight, and she may get up or not as she chooses."[113] 2000: Her home state awarded her the Alabama Academy of Honor,[114] She received the first Governor's Medal of Honor for Extraordinary Courage.[115] She was awarded two dozen honorary doctorates from universities worldwide[116] She was made an honorary member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.[117] the Rosa Parks Library and Museum on the campus of Troy University in Montgomery was dedicated to her. 2002: Scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Parks on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[118] A portion of the Interstate 10 freeway in Los Angeles was named in her honor. She received the Walter P. Reuther Humanitarian Award from Wayne State University.[119] 2003: Bus No. 2857, on which Parks was riding, was restored and placed on display in The Henry Ford museum[120] 2004: In the Los Angeles County MetroRail system, the Imperial Highway/Wilmington station, where the A Line connects with the C Line, has been officially named the "Rosa Parks Station".[121][122] 2005: Senate Concurrent Resolution 61, 109th Congress, 1st Session, was agreed to October 29, 2005. This set the stage for her to become the 1st woman to lie in honor, in the Capitol Rotunda.[123] On October 30, 2005, President George W. Bush issued a proclamation ordering that all flags on U.S. public areas both within the country and abroad be flown at half-staff on the day of Parks's funeral. Metro Transit in King County, Washington placed posters and stickers dedicating the first forward-facing seat of all its buses in Parks's memory shortly after her death,[124][125] The American Public Transportation Association declared December 1, 2005, the 50th anniversary of her arrest, to be a "National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day".[126] On that anniversary, President George W. Bush signed Pub.L. 109–116 (text) (PDF), directing that a statue of Parks be placed in the United States Capitol's National Statuary Hall. In signing the resolution directing the Joint Commission on the Library to do so, the President stated: By placing her statue in the heart of the nation's Capitol, we commemorate her work for a more perfect union, and we commit ourselves to continue to struggle for justice for every American.[127] Portion of Interstate 96 in Detroit was renamed by the state legislature as the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway in December 2005.[128] 2006: At Super Bowl XL, played at Detroit's Ford Field, long-time Detroit residents Coretta Scott King and Parks were remembered and honored by a moment of silence. The Super Bowl was dedicated to their memory.[129] Parks's nieces and nephews and Martin Luther King III joined the coin toss ceremonies, standing alongside former University of Michigan star Tom Brady who flipped the coin. On February 14, Nassau County, New York Executive, Thomas Suozzi announced that the Hempstead Transit Center would be renamed the Rosa Parks Hempstead Transit Center in her honor. On October 27, Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell signed a bill into law designating the portion of Pennsylvania Route 291 through Chester as the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway.[130] 2007: Nashville, Tennessee renamed MetroCenter Boulevard (8th Avenue North) (US 41A and SR 12) as Rosa L. Parks Boulevard.[131] On March 14, 2008, the State of California Government Center at 464 W. 4th St., on the northwest corner of Court and 4th streets, in San Bernardino was renamed the Rosa Parks Memorial Building.[132][133] 2009: On July 14, the Rosa Parks Transit Center opened in Detroit at the corner of Michigan and Cass Avenues.[134] 2010: in Grand Rapids, Michigan, a plaza in the heart of the city was named Rosa Parks Circle. 2012: A street in West Valley City, Utah (the state's second largest city), leading to the Utah Cultural Celebration Center was renamed Rosa Parks Drive.[135] External video video icon Rosa Parks 100th Birthday Commemoration at The Henry Ford, Dearborn, MI, February 4, 2013, C-SPAN 2013: On February 1, President Barack Obama proclaimed February 4, 2013, as the "100th Anniversary of the Birth of Rosa Parks". He called "upon all Americans to observe this day with appropriate service, community, and education programs to honor Rosa Parks's enduring legacy".[136] On February 4, to celebrate Rosa Parks's 100th birthday, the Henry Ford Museum declared the day a "National Day of Courage" with 12 hours of virtual and on-site activities featuring nationally recognized speakers, musical and dramatic interpretative performances, a panel presentation of "Rosa's Story" and a reading of the tale "Quiet Strength". The actual bus on which Rosa Parks sat was made available for the public to board and sit in the seat that Rosa Parks refused to give up.[137] On February 4, 2,000 birthday wishes gathered from people throughout the United States were transformed into 200 graphics messages at a celebration held on her 100th Birthday at the Davis Theater for the Performing Arts in Montgomery, Alabama. This was the 100th Birthday Wishes Project managed by the Rosa Parks Museum at Troy University and the Mobile Studio and was also a declared event by the Senate.[137] During both events the USPS unveiled a postage stamp in her honor.[138] On February 27, Parks became the first African-American woman to have her likeness depicted in National Statuary Hall. The monument, created by sculptor Eugene Daub, is a part of the Capitol Art Collection among nine other females featured in the National Statuary Hall Collection.[139] 2014: The asteroid 284996 Rosaparks, discovered in 2010 by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, was named in her memory.[140] The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on September 9, 2014 (M.P.C. 89835).[140][141] 2015: The papers of Rosa Parks were cataloged into the Library of Congress, after years of a legal battle.[142] On December 13, the new Rosa Parks Railway Station opened in Paris. 2016: The house lived in by Rosa Parks's brother, Sylvester McCauley, his wife Daisy, and their 13 children, and where Rosa Parks often visited and stayed after leaving Montgomery, was bought by her niece Rhea McCauley for $500 and donated to the artist Ryan Mendoza. It was subsequently dismantled and shipped to Berlin where it was re-erected in Mendoza's garden.[143] In 2018 it was returned to the United States and rebuilt at the Waterfire Arts Center, Providence, Rhode Island, where it was put on public display, accompanied by a range of interpretive materials and public and scholarly events.[144] The National Museum of African American History and Culture was opened; it contains among other things the dress which Rosa Parks was sewing the day she refused to give up her seat to a White man.[145][146][147][a] 2018: Continuing the Conversation, a public sculpture of Parks, was unveiled on the main campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology.[148] 2019: A statue of Rosa Parks was unveiled in Montgomery, Alabama.[149] 2021: On January 20, a bust of Rosa Parks by Artis Lane was added to the Oval Office when Joe Biden began his presidency. The sculpture is currently displayed next to Augustus Saint-Gaudens' bust of Abraham Lincoln.[150] The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal Parks and U.S. President Bill Clinton Parks and U.S. President Bill Clinton Rosa Parks Transit Center, Detroit Rosa Parks Transit Center, Detroit U.S. President Barack Obama sitting on the bus. Parks was arrested sitting in the same row Obama is in, but on the opposite side. U.S. President Barack Obama sitting on the bus. Parks was arrested sitting in the same row Obama is in, but on the opposite side. A plaque entitled "The Bus Stop" at Dexter Ave. and Montgomery St.—the place Rosa Parks boarded the bus—pays tribute to her and the success of the Montgomery bus boycott. A plaque entitled "The Bus Stop" at Dexter Ave. and Montgomery St.—the place Rosa Parks boarded the bus—pays tribute to her and the success of the Montgomery bus boycott. The No. 2857 bus on which Parks was riding before her arrest (a GM "old-look" transit bus, serial number 1132), is now a museum exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum. The No. 2857 bus on which Parks was riding before her arrest (a GM "old-look" transit bus, serial number 1132), is now a museum exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum. Rosa Parks Railway Station in Paris Rosa Parks Railway Station in Paris In popular culture In 1979, the Supersisters trading card set was produced and distributed; one of the cards featured Parks's name and picture. She is card #27 in the set.[151] In March 1999, Parks filed a lawsuit (Rosa Parks v. LaFace Records) against American hip-hop duo OutKast and their record company, claiming that the duo's song "Rosa Parks", the most successful radio single of their 1998 album Aquemini, had used her name without permission.[152] The lawsuit was settled on April 15, 2005 (six months and nine days before Parks's death); OutKast, their producer and record labels paid Parks an undisclosed cash settlement. They also agreed to work with the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute to create educational programs about the life of Rosa Parks. The record label and OutKast admitted no wrongdoing. Responsibility for the payment of legal fees was not disclosed.[153] The documentary Mighty Times: The Legacy of Rosa Parks (2001) received a 2002 nomination for Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject. She collaborated on a TV movie of her life, The Rosa Parks Story (2002), starring Angela Bassett.[154] The film Barbershop (2002) featured a barber, played by Cedric the Entertainer, arguing with others that other African Americans before Parks had been active in bus integration, but she was renowned as an NAACP secretary. The activists Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton launched a boycott against the film, contending it was "disrespectful", but NAACP president Kweisi Mfume stated he thought the controversy was "overblown".[155] Parks was offended and boycotted the NAACP 2003 Image Awards ceremony, which Cedric hosted.[156] In 2013, Parks was portrayed by Llewella Gideon in the first series of the Sky Arts comedy series Psychobitches.[157] The 2018 episode "Rosa", of the science-fiction television series Doctor Who, centers on Rosa Parks, as portrayed by Vinette Robinson.[158] The UK children's historical show Horrible Histories honored Parks by creating a song to close an episode, "Rosa Parks: I Sat on a Bus".[159] In 2019, Mattel released a Barbie doll in Parks's likeness as part of their "Inspiring Women" series.[160][161] In 2020, rapper Nicki Minaj incorporated Rosa Parks into her song "Yikes" where she rapped, "All you bitches Rosa Park, uh-oh, get your ass up" in reference to the Montgomery bus boycott.[162][163] See also flag United States portal Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal Biography portal Elizabeth Jennings Graham, 1854 sued and won case that led to desegregation of streetcars in New York City Charlotte L. Brown, desegregated streetcars in San Francisco in the 1860s John Mitchell Jr., in 1904, he organized a Black boycott of Richmond, Virginia's segregated trolley system Irene Morgan, in 1944, sued and won Supreme Court ruling that segregation of interstate buses was unconstitutional Claudette Colvin Cleveland Court Apartments 620–638 List of civil rights leaders Rosa Parks Act Timeline of the civil rights movement Notes Ruth Bonner was the daughter of Elijah B. Odom of Mississippi, an escaped slave who lived through the years of Reconstruction and segregation.[147] Further reading Library resources about Rosa Parks Resources in your library Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit, Columbia University Press, 1983. Brinkley, Douglas. Rosa Parks: A Life, Penguin Books, October 25, 2005. ISBN 0-14-303600-9 Morris, Aldon (Summer 2012). "Rosa Parks, Strategic Activist (sidebar)". Contexts. 11 (3): 25. doi:10.1177/1536504212456178. Editorial (May 17, 1974). "Two decades later" (subscription required). The New York Times. p. 38. ("Within a year of Brown, Rosa Parks, a tired seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, was, like Homer Plessy sixty years earlier, arrested for her refusal to move to the back of the bus.") Parks, Rosa, with James Haskins, Rosa Parks: My Story. New York: Scholastic Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-590-46538-4 Theoharis, Jeanne The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks, Beacon Press, 2015, ISBN 9780807076927 External links Rosa Parks at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Listen to this article (37 minutes) 36:38 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 29 November 2005, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) "Rosa Parks Papers". Library of Congress. Rosa Parks Library and Museum at Troy University The Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development Parks article in the Encyclopedia of Alabama Rosa Parks bus on display at the Henry Ford Museum Teaching and Learning Rosa Parks' Rebellious Life Norwood, Arlisha. "Rosa Parks". National Women's History Museum. 2017. Multimedia and interviews Appearances on C-SPAN "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies"—National Public Radio "Civil Rights Pioneer Rosa Parks 1913–2005"—Democracy Now! (democracynow.org) "Eyes on the Prize; Interview with Rosa Parks," 1985-11-14, American Archive of Public Broadcasting Others Complete audio/video and newspaper archive of the Montgomery bus boycott Rosa Parks: cadre of working-class movement that ended Jim Crow print media reaction to Parks' death in the Newseum archive of front page images from 2005-10-25. Rosa Parks at IMDb Photo of Rosa Parks Childhood Home Awards and Honors for Rosa Parks vte Alabama Women's Hall of Fame 1970s 1971 Hallie FarmerHelen KellerJulia Strudwick Tutwiler 1972 Agnes Ellen HarrisMargaret Murray Washington 1973 Edwina Donnelly MitchellLurleen Wallace 1974 Henrietta GibbsLoraine Bedsole Tunstall 1975 Dixie Bibb GravesMarie Bankhead Owen 1976 Ruth Robertson BerreyAnnie Lola Price 1977 Amelia Gayle GorgasAugusta Jane Evans Wilson 1978 Annie Rowan Forney DaugettePatti Ruffner Jacobs 1979 Myrtle BrookeCarrie A. Tuggle 1980s 1980 Kathleen Moore MalloryRuby Pickens Tartt 1981 Tallulah BankheadElizabeth Johnston 1982 Chrysostom MoynahanLoula Friend Dunn 1983 Anne Mathilde BilbroClara Weaver Parrish 1984 Mildred Westervelt WarnerKatherine White-Spunner 1985 Blanche Evans DeanKatherine Vickery 1986 Chamintney Stovall ThomasMartha Strudwick Young 1987 Elizabeth C. CrosbyLella Warren 1988 Katherine Cooper CaterMary Elizabeth Phillips Thompson 1989 Gwen BristowGeneva Mercer 1990s 1990 Maud McLure KellyOctavia Walton Le Vert 1991 Frances Virginia PraytorAnna Linton PraytorJulia Tarrant Barron 1992 Bessie Morse BellingrathFrances Scott FitzgeraldZelda Fitzgerald 1993 Ida Elizabeth Brandon MathisMary George Jordan Waite 1994 Doris Marie BenderLottice Howell 1995 Elizabeth Burford BashinskyMaude McKnight Lindsay 1997 Hattie Hooker WilkinsMarion Walker Spidle 1998 Martha Foster CrawfordMaria Howard Weeden 1999 Margaret H. BoothJuliet Opie Hopkins 2000s 2000 Florence Golson BatemanMaria Fearing 2001 Ida Vines MoffettSibyl Murphree Pool 2002 Idella Jones ChildsJane Lobman Katz 2003 Louise BranscombBess Bolden Walcott 2004 Nancy Batson CrewsRosa Gerhardt 2005 Vera HallJuliette Hampton Morgan 2006 Virginia Foster DurrMary Celesta Johnson Weatherly 2007 Fran McKeeMartha Crystal Myers 2008 Rosa Parks 2009 Coretta Scott King 2010s 2010 Mary Ivy BurksMargaret Charles Smith 2011 Evelyn Daniel AndersonAda Ruth Stovall 2012 Nina Miglionico 2013 Zora Neale HurstonFrances C. Roberts 2014 Hazel Mansell Gore 2015 Kathryn Tucker Windham 2016 Anne Mae BeddowSarah Haynsworth Gayle 2017 Mary Ward BrownSara Crews Finley 2018 Jessie Welch AustinJeanne Friegel Berman 2019 Milly FrancisHarper Lee 2020s 2020 Mother AngelicaJanie Shores vte Michigan Women's Hall of Fame 1980s 1983 Harriette Simpson ArnowN. Lorraine BeebeMamie Geraldine Neale BledsoeElizabeth Margaret ChandlerMary Stallings ColemanWilma T. DonahueGrace ElderingJosephine GomonMartha W. GriffithsDorothy HaenerLaura Smith HavilandMildred JeffreyPearl KendrickHelen W. MillikenRosa ParksAnna Howard ShawLucinda Hinsdale StoneSojourner Truth 1984 Virginia AllanHelen J. ClaytorCaroline Bartlett CraneMarguerite De AngeliEmma Genevieve GilletteIcie Macy HooblerMagdelaine LaframboiseMartha LongstreetElly M. PetersonJessie Pharr SlatonMary C. SpencerBertha Van Hoosen 1986 Patricia BoyleElizabeth C. CrosbyGwen FrosticElmina R. LuckeMarjorie Swank MatthewsMarjorie Peebles-MeyersMary Chase Perry StrattonHelen Thomas 1987 Marion Isabel BarnhartPatricia Hill BurnettEthel CalhounGeorgia EmeryBetty FordRosa Slade GraggClara Raven 1988 Louise (Sally) Langdon BrownEthelene CrockettMarcia J. FederbushFrances Alvord HarrisM. Jane Kay NugentAgnes Mary MansourHelen M. MartinSarah Goddard Power 1989 Clara ArthurAnna Sutherland BissellAlexa CanadyAnne R. DavidowBernadine Newsom DenningIsabella KarleJean Ledwith KingOlga MadarMary Anne Mayo 1990s 1990 Emily Helen ButterfieldErma HendersonDorothy Leonard JuddElba Lila MorseFannie M. RichardsEmelia Christine SchaubMary P. SinclairMerze TateDelia Villegas Vorhauer 1991 Rachel AndresenMary BeckJan BenDorJanet K. GoodJo JacobsVirginia Cecile Blomer NordbyDorothy Comstock RileyEdith Mays Swanson 1992 Cora BrownMary Lou ButcherSarah Emma EdmondsViolet Temple LewisLuise Ruth Leismer MahonGilda RadnerMartha Romayne SegerAnn M. ShaferSylvia M. StoesserLucy ThurmanCharleszetta Waddles 1993 Edith Vosburgh AlvordCatherine Carter BlackwellJean W. CampbellKatherine Hill CampbellLenna Frances CooperRoberta A. GriffithBina West MillerJeanne OmelenchukSippie WallaceEdna Noble WhiteIrene Clark Woodman 1994 Marie-Therese Guyon CadillacRuth CarltonFlossie CohenBertha A. DaubendiekGenora Johnson DollingerFlora HommelSarah Van Hoosen JonesAleda E. LutzHelen Walker McAndrew 1995 Yolanda Alvarado-OrtegaIrene AuberlinHilda R. GageLucia Voorhees GrimesR. Louise GroomsOdessa KomerLaura Freele OsbornJacquelin E. Washington 1996 Carrie Frazier Rogers-BrownAnna ClemencWaunetta McClellan DominicMargaret Muth LaurenceClaudia House MorcomBetsy Graves ReyneauShirley E. SchwartzJoan Luedders Wolfe 1997 Ellen BurstynMarion Corwell-ShertzerFour Sisters of CharityDella McGraw GoodwinAlice HamiltonNancy Harkness LoveMaryann MahaffeySharon E. SuttonMatilda Dodge Wilson 1998 Connie BinsfeldHilda Patricia CurranMarie DyeEleanor JosaitisDorrie Ellen RosenblattElla Merriman SharpMartha Jean SteinbergRuth ThompsonLily Tomlin 1999 Patricia BeemanOlympia BrownDoris DeDeckereMargaret Drake ElliottElizabeth HomerEleonore HutzelElla Eaton KelloggEmily Burton KetchamArdeth Platte 2000s 2000 Loney Clinton GordonKatherine G. HeidemanDauris Gwendolyn JacksonCornelia Groefsema KennedyMarjorie J. LansingChuan-Pu LeeMarilyn Fisher LundyKatharine Dexter McCormickKathleen N. StrausClarissa M. Young 2001 Cora Reynolds AndersonLucile E. BelenTheresa Maxis DucheminAretha FranklinFrancie Kraker GoodridgeMarian Bayoff IlitchMary Ellen RiordanJoesphine Stern Weiner 2002 Hortense Golden CanadyJulia Wheelock FreemanLillian Mellen GenserMay Stocking KnaggsNaomi Long MadgettLucille Hanna McColloughLana PollackMartha Louise RayneMuriel Dorothy Ross 2003 Mary Agnes BlairVerne BurbridgeNellie CuellarAlice Scanlan KocelJoyce Lewis KornbluhEliza Seaman LeggettIda LippmanMarion Weyant RuthBernice SteadmanPamela WithrowRuth Zweifler 2004 Geraldine Bledsoe FordJennifer Mulhern GranholmLystra GretterFlorine MarkCathy McClellandConstance Mayfield Rourke 2005 Margaret ChiaraEva Lois EvansGeorgia A. Lewis JohnsonLida Holmes MattmanOlivia MaynardDeborah StabenowCaroline ThrunMargaret Sellers WalkerElizabeth Weaver 2006 Cynthia YaoMary Esther DaddazioMargery FeliksaNancy HammondViola LiuzzoMarge PiercyDora Hall StockmanMartha Strickland ClarkHelen Hornbeck Tanner 2007 Mary BrownGertrude BuckEmma ColeHaifa FakhouriCarolyn GeiselJane Briggs HartAbigail RogersKathleen WilburWoman's Hospital Association (charter members) 2008 Carol AtkinsPatricia CuzaCarol KingVicki NeibergJane Johnston SchoolcraftLeta SnowSister Mary Francilene Van de Vyver 2009 Carol AtkinsGrace Lee BoggsMargaret ChandlerRuth EllisEdna FerberGlenda LappanKay Givens McGowanElizabeth PhillipsJessica RickertBetty TablemanMarlo Thomas 2010s 2010 Mary AikeyLaura Carter CallowAugusta Jane ChapinSandra Laser DraggooAnnie EtheridgeSherrill FreeboroughDorean Marguerite Hurley KoenigTerry McMillanEdith MungerCynthia J. Pasky 2011 Lois A. BaderJumana JudehMarilyn KellyValeria LipczynskiEdelmira LopezKary MossRose Mary RobinsonTricia Saunders 2012 Gladys BeckwithPatricia CarusoMary Jane DockerayJudith KarandjeffLes Meres et Debutantes Club of Greater LansingSerena WilliamsL. Anna BallardEva McCall HamiltonMary E. McCoy 2013 Elizabeth W. BauerJudith Levin CantorPaula CunninghamJoan Jackson JohnsonGladys McKenneyMarina von Neumann WhitmanCon-Con ElevenElizabeth EaglesfieldHarriet Quimby 2014 Elizabeth Lehman BelenMaryLee DavisJeanne FindlaterDorothy A. JohnsonJulie KroneMary Carmelita ManningBarbara Roberts MasonMarylou Olivarez MasonAndra M. RushMary Ellen SheetsLucille Farrier Stickel 2015 Jocelyn BensonMaxine BermanSue CarterJanet C. CooperMabel White HolmesCandice MillerEsther K. ShapiroMaggie WalzMyra WolfgangLinda M. Woods 2016 Elizabeth Sparks AdamsAnan AmeriDaisy ElliottFaith FowlerEvelyn GoldenOlivia LettsMary Free Bed GuildDiana RossLou Anna Kimsey SimonCharlotte Wilson 2017 American Legion NUWARINE Post 535Ella Mae BackusClara Bryant FordLisette Denison ForthMary Kay HenryVerna Grahek MizeBernice MortonRosie the RiveterRosemary C. SarriElizabeth Wetzel 2018 Agatha BiddleMona Hanna-AttishaClara Stanton JonesAngela K. WilsonKym L. Worthy 2019 Margaret Kirchner StevensonLucile A. WattsMartha BaldwinGilda Z. JacobsVernice Davis AnthonyTerry Blackhawk 2020s 2020 Najah BazzyElizabeth Jackson (Michigan)Glenda PriceMartha TeichnerAtlas Ruth WestbrookDorothy Zehnder 2021 Rosalind BrewerDebra White-HuntLila NeuenfeltFannie B. PeckSarah Elizabeth RayDiana Sieger vte Inductees to the National Women's Hall of Fame 1970–1979 1973 Jane AddamsMarian AndersonSusan B. AnthonyClara BartonMary McLeod BethuneElizabeth BlackwellPearl S. BuckRachel CarsonMary CassattEmily DickinsonAmelia EarhartAlice HamiltonHelen HayesHelen KellerEleanor RooseveltFlorence SabinMargaret Chase SmithElizabeth Cady StantonHelen Brooke TaussigHarriet Tubman 1976 Abigail AdamsMargaret MeadMildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias 1979 Dorothea DixJuliette Gordon LowAlice PaulElizabeth Bayley Seton 1980–1989 1981 Margaret SangerSojourner Truth 1982 Carrie Chapman CattFrances Perkins 1983 Belva LockwoodLucretia Mott 1984 Mary "Mother" Harris JonesBessie Smith 1986 Barbara McClintockLucy StoneHarriet Beecher Stowe 1988 Gwendolyn BrooksWilla CatherSally RideIda B. Wells-Barnett 1990–1999 1990 Margaret Bourke-WhiteBarbara JordanBillie Jean KingFlorence B. Seibert 1991 Gertrude Belle Elion 1993 Ethel Percy AndrusAntoinette BlackwellEmily BlackwellShirley ChisholmJacqueline CochranRuth ColvinMarian Wright EdelmanAlice EvansBetty FriedanElla GrassoMartha Wright GriffithsFannie Lou HamerDorothy HeightDolores HuertaMary Putnam JacobiMae JemisonMary LyonMary MahoneyWilma MankillerConstance Baker MotleyGeorgia O'KeeffeAnnie OakleyRosa ParksEsther PetersonJeannette RankinEllen Swallow RichardsElaine RouletKatherine Siva SaubelGloria SteinemHelen StephensLillian WaldMadam C. J. WalkerFaye WattletonRosalyn S. YalowGloria Yerkovich 1994 Bella AbzugElla BakerMyra BradwellAnnie Jump CannonJane Cunningham CrolyCatherine EastGeraldine FerraroCharlotte Perkins GilmanGrace HopperHelen LaKelly HuntZora Neale HurstonAnne HutchinsonFrances Wisebart JacobsSusette La FlescheLouise McManusMaria MitchellAntonia NovelloLinda RichardsWilma RudolphBetty Bone SchiessMuriel SiebertNettie StevensOprah WinfreySarah WinnemuccaFanny Wright 1995 Virginia ApgarAnn BancroftAmelia BloomerMary BreckinridgeEileen CollinsElizabeth Hanford DoleAnne Dallas DudleyMary Baker EddyElla FitzgeraldMargaret FullerMatilda Joslyn GageLillian Moller GilbrethNannerl O. KeohaneMaggie KuhnSandra Day O'ConnorJosephine St. Pierre RuffinPat SchroederHannah Greenebaum Solomon 1996 Louisa May AlcottCharlotte Anne BunchFrances Xavier CabriniMary A. HallarenOveta Culp HobbyWilhelmina Cole HolladayAnne Morrow LindberghMaria Goeppert MayerErnestine Louise Potowski RoseMaria TallchiefEdith Wharton 1998 Madeleine AlbrightMaya AngelouNellie BlyLydia Moss BradleyMary Steichen CalderoneMary Ann Shadd CaryJoan Ganz CooneyGerty CoriSarah GrimkéJulia Ward HoweShirley Ann JacksonShannon LucidKatharine Dexter McCormickRozanne L. RidgwayEdith Nourse RogersFelice SchwartzEunice Kennedy ShriverBeverly SillsFlorence WaldAngelina Grimké WeldChien-Shiung Wu 2000–2009 2000 Faye Glenn AbdellahEmma Smith DeVoeMarjory Stoneman DouglasMary DyerSylvia A. EarleCrystal EastmanJeanne HolmLeontine T. KellyFrances Oldham KelseyKate MullanyJanet RenoAnna Howard ShawSophia SmithIda TarbellWilma L. VaughtMary Edwards WalkerAnnie Dodge WaunekaEudora WeltyFrances E. Willard 2001 Dorothy H. AndersenLucille BallRosalynn CarterLydia Maria ChildBessie ColemanDorothy DayMarian de ForestAlthea GibsonBeatrice A. HicksBarbara HoldridgeHarriet Williams Russell StrongEmily Howell WarnerVictoria Woodhull 2002 Paulina Kellogg Wright DavisRuth Bader GinsburgKatharine GrahamBertha HoltMary Engle PenningtonMercy Otis Warren 2003 Linda G. AlvaradoDonna de VaronaGertrude EderleMartha Matilda HarperPatricia Roberts HarrisStephanie L. KwolekDorothea LangeMildred Robbins LeetPatsy Takemoto MinkSacagaweaAnne SullivanSheila E. Widnall 2005 Florence E. AllenRuth Fulton BenedictBetty BumpersHillary ClintonRita Rossi ColwellMother Marianne CopeMaya Y. LinPatricia A. LockeBlanche Stuart ScottMary Burnett Talbert 2007 Eleanor K. BaumJulia ChildMartha Coffin Pelham WrightSwanee HuntWinona LaDukeElisabeth Kübler-RossJudith L. PipherCatherine Filene ShouseHenrietta Szold 2009 Louise BourgeoisMildred CohnKaren DeCrowSusan Kelly-DreissAllie B. LatimerEmma LazarusRuth PatrickRebecca Talbot PerkinsSusan SolomonKate Stoneman 2010–2019 2011 St. Katharine DrexelDorothy Harrison EustisLoretta C. FordAbby Kelley FosterHelen Murray FreeBillie HolidayCoretta Scott KingLilly LedbetterBarbara A. MikulskiDonna E. ShalalaKathrine Switzer 2013 Betty FordIna May GaskinJulie KroneKate MillettNancy PelosiMary Joseph RogersBernice SandlerAnna SchwartzEmma Willard 2015 Tenley AlbrightNancy BrinkerMartha GrahamMarcia GreenbergerBarbara IglewskiJean KilbourneCarlotta Walls LaNierPhilippa MarrackMary Harriman RumseyEleanor Smeal 2017 Matilda CuomoTemple GrandinLorraine HansberryVictoria JacksonSherry LansingClare Boothe LuceAimee MullinsCarol MutterJanet RowleyAlice Waters 2019 Gloria AllredAngela DavisSarah DeerJane FondaNicole MalachowskiRose O'NeillLouise SlaughterSonia SotomayorLaurie SpiegelFlossie Wong-Staal 2020–2029 2020 Aretha FranklinBarbara HillaryBarbara Rose JohnsHenrietta LacksToni MorrisonMary Church Terrell vte NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Tichina Arnold (1996)Kim Coles (1998)Jackée Harry (1999)Rosa Parks (2000)Terri J. Vaughn (2001)Terri J. Vaughn (2002)Terri J. Vaughn (2003)Camille Winbush (2004)Camille Winbush (2005)Camille Winbush (2006)Vanessa Williams (2007)Vanessa Williams (2008)Keshia Knight Pulliam (2009)Keshia Knight Pulliam (2010)Sofía Vergara (2011)Keshia Knight Pulliam (2012)Vanessa Williams (2013)Brandy (2014)Yara Shahidi (2015)Marsai Martin (2016)Adrienne C. Moore (2017)Marsai Martin (2018)Marsai Martin (2019)Marsai Martin (2020)Marsai Martin (2021)Natasha Rothwell (2022) vte NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Fatima Faloye (1996)Lynn Whitfield (1998)Ruby Dee (1999)Rosa Parks (2000)Loretta Devine (2001)Debbi Morgan (2002)Loretta Devine (2003)Loretta Devine (2004)Khandi Alexander (2005)S. Epatha Merkerson (2006)Chandra Wilson (2007)Chandra Wilson (2008)Angela Bassett (2009)S. Epatha Merkerson (2010)S. Epatha Merkerson (2011)Archie Panjabi (2012)Loretta Devine (2013)Taraji P. Henson (2014)Khandi Alexander (2015)Regina King (2016)Naturi Naughton (2017)Naturi Naughton (2018)Lynn Whitfield (2019)Lynn Whitfield (2020)Mary J. Blige (2021)Mary J. Blige (2022) vte Spingarn Medal winners 1915: Ernest Everett Just1916: Charles Young1917: Harry Burleigh1918: William Stanley Braithwaite1919: Archibald Grimké1920: W. E. B. Du Bois1921: Charles Sidney Gilpin1922: Mary Burnett Talbert1923: George Washington Carver1924: Roland Hayes1925: James Weldon Johnson1926: Carter G. Woodson1927: Anthony Overton1928: Charles W. Chesnutt1929: Mordecai Wyatt Johnson1930: Henry A. Hunt1931: Richard Berry Harrison1932: Robert Russa Moton1933: Max Yergan1934: William T. B. Williams1935: Mary McLeod Bethune1936: John Hope1937: Walter Francis White1938: no award1939: Marian Anderson1940: Louis T. Wright1941: Richard Wright1942: A. Philip Randolph1943: William H. Hastie1944: Charles R. Drew1945: Paul Robeson1946: Thurgood Marshall1947: Percy Lavon Julian1948: Channing Heggie Tobias1949: Ralph Bunche1950: Charles Hamilton Houston1951: Mabel Keaton Staupers1952: Harry T. Moore1953: Paul R. Williams1954: Theodore K. Lawless1955: Carl J. Murphy1956: Jackie Robinson1957: Martin Luther King Jr.1958: Daisy Bates and the Little Rock Nine1959: Duke Ellington1960: Langston Hughes1961: Kenneth B. Clark1962: Robert C. Weaver1963: Medgar Evers1964: Roy Wilkins1965: Leontyne Price1966: John H. Johnson1967: Edward Brooke1968: Sammy Davis Jr.1969: Clarence Mitchell Jr.1970: Jacob Lawrence1971: Leon Sullivan1972: Gordon Parks1973: Wilson Riles1974: Damon Keith1975: no award1976: Hank Aaron1977: Alvin Ailey and Alex Haley1978: no award1979: Andrew Young and Rosa Parks1980: Rayford Logan1981: Coleman Young1982: Benjamin Elijah Mays1983: Lena Horne1984: no award1985: Tom Bradley and Bill Cosby1986: Benjamin Hooks1987: Percy Sutton1988: Frederick D. Patterson1989: Jesse Jackson1990: Douglas Wilder1991: Colin Powell1992: Barbara Jordan1993: Dorothy Height1994: Maya Angelou1995: John Hope Franklin1996: A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.1997: Carl Rowan1998: Myrlie Evers-Williams1999: Earl G. Graves Sr.2000: Oprah Winfrey2001: Vernon Jordan2002: John Lewis2003: Constance Baker Motley2004: Robert L. Carter2005: Oliver Hill2006: Ben Carson2007: John Conyers2008: Ruby Dee2009: Julian Bond2010: Cicely Tyson2011: Frankie Muse Freeman2012: Harry Belafonte2013: Jessye Norman2014: Quincy Jones2015: Sidney Poitier2016: Nathaniel R. Jones2017: no award2018: Willie Brown2019: Patrick Gaspard vte Civil rights movement (1954–1968) Notable events (timeline) Prior to 1954 Journey of ReconciliationMurder of Harry and Harriette MooreSweatt v. Painter (1950)McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. SharpeBriggs v. ElliottDavis v. Prince Edward CountyGebhart v. BeltonSarah Keys v. Carolina Coach CompanyEmmett TillMontgomery bus boycott Browder v. GayleTallahassee bus boycottMansfield school desegregation1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot"Royal Ice Cream sit-inLittle Rock Nine Cooper v. AaronCivil Rights Act of 1957Ministers' ManifestoKatz Drug Store sit-inKissing CaseBiloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day MarchGreensboro sit-insNashville sit-insAtlanta sit-insSit-in movementGreenville EightCivil Rights Act of 1960Ax Handle SaturdayGomillion v. LightfootBoynton v. VirginiaUniversity of Georgia desegregation riotRock Hill sit-insRobert F. Kennedy's Law Day AddressFreedom Rides Anniston bombingBirmingham attackGarner v. LouisianaAlbany MovementCambridge movementUniversity of Chicago sit-ins"Second Emancipation Proclamation"Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riotAtlanta's Berlin Wall"Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham JailChildren's CrusadeBirmingham riot16th Street Baptist Church bombingJohn F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil RightsDetroit Walk to FreedomMarch on Washington "I Have a Dream"Big SixSt. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth AmendmentChester school protestsBloody Tuesday1964 Monson Motor Lodge protestsFreedom Summer workers' murdersCivil Rights Act of 1964Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United StatesKatzenbach v. McClung1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long"Voting Rights Act of 1965Harper v. Virginia Board of ElectionsMarch Against FearWhite House Conference on Civil RightsChicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movementLoving v. VirginiaMemphis sanitation strikeKing assassination funeralriotsCivil Rights Act of 1968Poor People's CampaignGreen v. County School Board of New Kent CountyJones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. Activist groups Alabama Christian Movement for Human RightsAtlanta Student MovementBlack Panther PartyBrotherhood of Sleeping Car PortersCongress of Racial Equality (CORE)Committee for Freedom NowCommittee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human RightsCouncil for United Civil Rights LeadershipCouncil of Federated OrganizationsDallas County Voters LeagueDeacons for Defense and JusticeGeorgia Council on Human RelationsHighlander Folk SchoolLeadership Conference on Civil and Human RightsLowndes County Freedom OrganizationMississippi Freedom Democratic PartyMontgomery Improvement AssociationNAACP Youth CouncilNashville Student MovementNation of IslamNorthern Student MovementNational Council of Negro WomenNational Urban LeagueOperation BreadbasketRegional Council of Negro LeadershipSouthern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)Southern Regional CouncilStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)The Freedom SingersUnited Auto Workers (UAW)Wednesdays in MississippiWomen's Political Council Activists Ralph AbernathyVictoria Gray AdamsZev AelonyMathew AhmannMuhammad AliWilliam G. AndersonGwendolyn ArmstrongArnold AronsonElla BakerJames BaldwinMarion BarryDaisy BatesHarry BelafonteJames BevelClaude BlackGloria BlackwellRandolph BlackwellUnita BlackwellEzell Blair Jr.Joanne BlandJulian BondJoseph E. BooneWilliam Holmes BordersAmelia BoyntonBruce BoyntonRaylawni BranchStanley BrancheRuby BridgesAurelia BrowderH. Rap BrownRalph BuncheGuy CarawanStokely CarmichaelJohnnie CarrJames ChaneyJ. L. ChestnutShirley ChisholmColia Lafayette ClarkRamsey ClarkSeptima ClarkXernona ClaytonEldridge CleaverKathleen CleaverCharles E. Cobb Jr.Annie Lee CooperDorothy CottonClaudette ColvinVernon DahmerJonathan DanielsAngela DavisJoseph DeLaineDave DennisAnnie DevinePatricia Stephens DueJoseph EllwangerCharles EversMedgar EversMyrlie Evers-WilliamsChuck FagerJames FarmerWalter FauntroyJames FormanMarie FosterGolden FrinksAndrew GoodmanRobert GraetzFred GrayJack GreenbergDick GregoryLawrence GuyotPrathia HallFannie Lou HamerFred HamptonWilliam E. HarbourVincent HardingDorothy HeightLola HendricksAaron HenryOliver HillDonald L. HollowellJames HoodMyles HortonZilphia HortonT. R. M. HowardRuby HurleyCecil IvoryJesse JacksonJimmie Lee JacksonRichie Jean JacksonT. J. JemisonEsau JenkinsBarbara Rose JohnsVernon JohnsFrank Minis JohnsonClarence JonesJ. Charles JonesMatthew JonesVernon JordanTom KahnClyde KennardA. D. KingC.B. KingCoretta Scott KingMartin Luther King Jr.Martin Luther King Sr.Bernard LafayetteJames LawsonBernard LeeSanford R. LeighJim LethererStanley LevisonJohn LewisViola LiuzzoZ. Alexander LoobyJoseph LoweryClara LuperDanny LyonMalcolm XMae MalloryVivian MaloneBob MantsThurgood MarshallBenjamin MaysFranklin McCainCharles McDewRalph McGillFloyd McKissickJoseph McNeilJames MeredithWilliam MingJack MinnisAmzie MooreCecil B. MooreDouglas E. MooreHarriette MooreHarry T. MooreQueen Mother MooreWilliam Lewis MooreIrene MorganBob MosesWilliam MoyerElijah MuhammadDiane NashCharles NeblettHuey P. NewtonEdgar NixonJack O'DellJames OrangeRosa ParksJames PeckCharles PersonHomer PlessyAdam Clayton Powell Jr.Fay Bellamy PowellRodney N. PowellAl RabyLincoln RagsdaleA. Philip RandolphGeorge RaymondGeorge Raymond Jr.Bernice Johnson ReagonCordell ReagonJames ReebFrederick D. ReeseWalter ReutherGloria RichardsonDavid RichmondBernice RobinsonJo Ann RobinsonAngela RussellBayard RustinBernie SandersMichael SchwernerBobby SealeCleveland SellersCharles SherrodAlexander D. ShimkinFred ShuttlesworthModjeska Monteith SimkinsGlenn E. SmileyA. Maceo SmithKelly Miller SmithMary Louise SmithMaxine SmithRuby Doris Smith-RobinsonCharles Kenzie SteeleHank ThomasDorothy TillmanA. P. TureaudHartman TurnbowAlbert TurnerC. T. VivianWyatt Tee WalkerHollis WatkinsWalter Francis WhiteRoy WilkinsHosea WilliamsKale WilliamsRobert F. WilliamsAndrew YoungWhitney YoungSammy Younge Jr.Bob ZellnerJames Zwerg Influences Nonviolence PadayatraSermon on the MountMahatma Gandhi AhimsaSatyagrahaThe Kingdom of God Is Within YouFrederick DouglassW. E. B. Du BoisMary McLeod Bethune Related Jim Crow lawsLynching in the United StatesPlessy v. Ferguson Separate but equalBuchanan v. WarleyHocutt v. WilsonSweatt v. PainterHernandez v. TexasLoving v. VirginiaAfrican-American women in the movementFifth Circuit Four16th Street Baptist ChurchKelly Ingram ParkA.G. Gaston MotelBrown ChapelDexter Avenue Baptist ChurchHolt Street Baptist ChurchEdmund Pettus BridgeMarch on Washington MovementAfrican-American churches attackedList of lynching victims in the United StatesFreedom songs "Kumbaya""Keep Your Eyes on the Prize""Oh, Freedom""This Little Light of Mine""We Shall Not Be Moved""We Shall Overcome"Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"Watts riotsVoter Education Project1960s countercultureEyes on the Prize Honoring In popular cultureMartin Luther King Jr. Memorial other King memorialsBirmingham Civil Rights National MonumentMedgar and Myrlie Evers Home National MonumentFreedom Rides MuseumFreedom Riders National MonumentCivil Rights MemorialNational Civil Rights MuseumNational Voting Rights MuseumSt. Augustine Foot Soldiers MonumentCivil Rights Movement ArchiveKing Center for Nonviolent Social Change Noted historians Taylor BranchClayborne CarsonJohn DittmerMichael Eric DysonChuck FagerAdam FaircloughDavid GarrowDavid HalberstamVincent HardingSteven F. LawsonDoug McAdamDiane McWhorterCharles M. PayneTimothy TysonAkinyele UmojaMovement photographers Civil rights movement portal vte African Americans History TimelineAbolitionismAfrocentrismAmerican Civil WarAtlantic slave tradeBlack genocideBlack Lives MatterBrown v. Board of EducationChildren of the plantationCivil Rights Acts 1964Voting Rights Act of 19651968Civil rights movement 1865–18961896–19541954–1968Birmingham movementMarch on WashingtonSelma to Montgomery marchesPost–civil rights eraCornerstone speechC-19 impactDred Scott v. SandfordFree NegroFree people of colorGeorge Floyd protestsGreat Migration SecondNewInauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013Jim Crow lawsLynchingMilitary historyNadir of American race relationsThe Negro Motorist Green BookPartus sequitur ventremPlantationsPlessy v. FergusonReconstruction AmendmentsReconstruction eraRedliningSeparate but equalSlavery Treatment of slavesTulsa race massacreUnderground RailroadWomen's suffrage movement Culture AfrofuturismArtBlack meccaBusinessesDanceFamily structureFilmFolktalesHairHarlem Renaissance New NegroJuneteenthKwanzaaLGBT communityLiteratureMusicMusical theaterNamesNegro National AnthemNeighborhoodsNewspapersSoul foodStereotypesMiddle classUpper class Notable people Ralph AbernathyMaya AngelouCrispus AttucksJames BaldwinJames BevelJulian BondAmelia BoyntonJames BradleyCarol Moseley BraunEdward BrookeBlanche BruceRalph BuncheGeorge Washington CarverShirley ChisholmClaudette ColvinFrederick DouglassW. E. B. Du BoisMedgar EversJames FarmerHenry Highland GarnetMarcus GarveyFannie Lou HamerKamala HarrisJimi HendrixJesse JacksonKetanji Brown JacksonMichael JacksonHarriet JacobsCoretta Scott KingMartin Luther King Jr.James LawsonHuddie LedbetterJohn LewisJoseph LoweryMalcolm XThurgood MarshallToni MorrisonBob MosesDiane NashBarack ObamaRosa ParksAdam Clayton Powell Jr.Colin PowellGabriel ProsserJoseph RaineyA. Philip RandolphHiram RevelsPaul RobesonAl SharptonFred ShuttlesworthClarence ThomasEmmett TillSojourner TruthHarriet TubmanNat TurnerDenmark VeseyDavid WalkerBooker T. WashingtonIda B. WellsRoy WilkinsOprah WinfreyAndrew YoungWhitney Young Education, science and technology African-American studiesBlack schoolsHistorically black colleges and universitiesInventors and scientistsMuseumsWomen in computer sciencein medicinein STEM fields Religion African-American JewsIslam American Society of MuslimsNation of IslamBlack church Azusa Street RevivalBlack Hebrew IsraelitesBlack theologyDoctrine of Father Divine Political movements AnarchismBack-to-Africa movementBlack Power MovementCapitalismConservatismLeftismPan-AfricanismPopulismRaised fistSelf-determination NationalismSocialism Civic and economic groups Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)Black Panther PartyCongress of Racial Equality (CORE)National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)Nashville Student MovementNational Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)National Urban League (NUL)Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)Thurgood Marshall College FundUnited Negro College Fund (UNCF)Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) Sports Negro league baseballBaseball color lineBlack players in professional American footballBlack NFL quarterbacksBlack players in ice hockeyMuhammad AliArthur AsheJack JohnsonJoe LouisJesse OwensJackie RobinsonSerena Williams Athletic associations and conferences Central (CIAA)Mid-Eastern (MEAC)Southern (SIAC)Southwestern (SWAC) Ethnic subdivisions By African descent FulaGullahIgboYorubaBlack Indians Black SeminolesCherokee freedmen controversyChoctaw freedmenCreek FreedmenBlack SouthernersBlaxicansLouisiana Creole of colorMelungeon Demographics Neighborhoods listU.S. cities with large populations 2000 majorities2010 majoritiesMetropolitan areasStates and territories Languages English American EnglishAfrican-American EnglishAfrican-American Vernacular EnglishGullahLouisiana Creole By state/city AlabamaCalifornia Los AngelesSan FranciscoFlorida JacksonvilleTallahasseeGeorgia AtlantaHawaiiIllinois ChicagoIowa DavenportKansasKentuckyLouisianaMaryland BaltimoreMassachusetts BostonMichigan DetroitMississippiNebraska OmahaNew York New York CityNorth CarolinaOklahomaOregonPennsylvania PhiladelphiaPuerto RicoSouth CarolinaTennesseeTexas AustinDallas-Fort WorthHoustonSan AntonioUtah Diaspora Africa GambiaGhanaLiberiaSierra LeoneAmerica CanadaDominican RepublicHaitiMexicoTrinidad and TobagoIsraelEurope France Lists African Americans ActivistsActorsAstronautsBillionairesJuristsMathematiciansRepublicansSingersSpingarn Medal winnersUS cabinet membersUS representativesUS senatorsVisual artistsWritersAfrican-American firsts MayorsSports firstsUS state firstsHistoric placesIndex of related articlesLandmark African-American legislationLynching victimsNeighborhoodsTopics related to the African diaspora Categoryflag United States portal vte Lain in state (United States) Lain in state US Capitol rotunda Clay (1852)Lincoln (1865, funeral)‡Stevens (1868)Sumner (1874)Wilson (1875)Garfield (1881)‡Logan (1886)McKinley (1901)‡L'Enfant (1909)1Dewey (1917)Unknown Soldier for World War I (1921)Harding (1923)W. H. Taft (1930)Pershing (1948)R. A. Taft (1953)Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War (1958)Kennedy (1963, funeral)‡MacArthur (1964)H. Hoover (1964)Eisenhower (1969)Dirksen (1969)J. E. Hoover (1972)Johnson (1973)Humphrey (1978)Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (1984)2Pepper (1989)Reagan (2004, funeral)Ford (2006–07, funeral)Inouye (2012)McCain (2018)Bush (2018, funeral)Cummings (2019)3Lewis (2020)Ginsburg (2020, funeral)3,4Dole (2021)Reid (2022)Young (2022)3 Lain in honor US Capitol rotunda Chestnut and Gibson (1998)Parks (2005)Graham (2018)Sicknick (2021)Evans (2021)Williams (2022) Lain in repose Great Hall of the US Supreme Court Warren (1974)Marshall (1993)Burger (1995)Brennan (1997)Blackmun (1999)Rehnquist (2005)Scalia (2016)Stevens (2019)Ginsburg (2020, funeral)4 Bold - Presidents and chief justices • ‡ - Assassinated 1 Died in 1825, exhumed and honored before reinterment • 2 Later identified as 1st. Lt. Michael Blassie • 3 Lain in state in the National Statuary Hall, not in the US Capitol rotunda • 4 Lain in repose and Lain in state Authority control Edit this at Wikidata General ISNI 12VIAF 1WorldCat National libraries SpainFrance (data)GermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech RepublicKoreaNetherlandsPolandSweden Biographical dictionaries Germany Other Faceted Application of Subject TerminologyMusicBrainz artistNational Archives (US)Social Networks and Archival Context 2SUDOC (France) 1 Categories: Rosa Parks1913 births2005 deaths20th-century African-American activistsAfrican-American ChristiansAfrican-American history of AlabamaAfrican-American MethodistsActivists for African-American civil rightsActivists from Montgomery, AlabamaAlabama State University alumniAmerican people who self-identify as being of Native American descentAmerican people of Scotch-Irish descentAmerican women activistsBurials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Detroit)Civil rights protests in the United StatesCommunity organizingCongressional Gold Medal recipientsMontgomery bus boycottDeaths from dementia in MichiganNonviolence advocatesActivists from DetroitPeople from Tuskegee, AlabamaPresidential Medal of Freedom recipientsProtests in AlabamaSpingarn Medal winners Condition: In Excellent Condition, Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom, Modified Item: No
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